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PRINCIPLES    AND    METHODS 


OF 


TEACHING 


A    MANUAL     FOR     NORMAL     SCHOOLS,     READING 
CIRCLES,  AND  THE  TEACHERS  OF  ELEMEN- 
TARY,  INTERMEDIATE,  AND 
HIGHER  SCHOOLS 


BY 

CHARLES   C.  BOYER,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    PEDAGOGICS,  KEYSTONE   STATE    NORMAL   SCHOOL,  KUTZ- 

TOWN,    PA.,    AND    AUTHOR    OF    "  CONCRETE    PSYCHOLOGY," 

**  PSYCHIC    INITIATIVE   IN    EDUCATION,"    ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

1906 


COPTKIGHT, 


J.  B.  LippiNcoTT  Company, 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J,  Q,  Lippincqtt  Company,  Philadelphia,  U.S. At 


PREFACE. 


The  art  of  teaching  should  have  its  fouudations  in  science  ; 
for  then  and  only  then  will  teaching  cease  to  be  mechanical 
obedience  to  "authority."  Such  obedience  was  the  curse  of 
the  "  old"  education.  "  Tradition"  and  "  prescription"  deter- 
mined the  methods  not  only  in  oriental  systems  of  education, 
but  also  in  the  later  civilizations  of  Europe.  The  principle  of 
authority  has  not  wholly  disappeared  from  modern  school- 
rooms. Rational  methods  of  teaching,  indeed,  are  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule  in  the  great  mass  of  American 
teachers. 

The  individual  teacher  must  have  part  in  the  construction 
of  the  science  in  which  his  art  is  to  have  its  foundations. 
Otherwise  the  "  new"  education  will  simply  substitute  one 
tyrant  for  another.  In  other  words,  obedience  to  principles 
of  philosophy,  though  it  be  the  best  philosophy,  is  only  slavery 
as  long  as  the  teacher  who  submits  to  such  laws  cannot  justify 
these  in  his  own  consciousness. 

The  great  mass  of  teachers  is  not  equal  to  the  task  of  con- 
structing the  complex  science  of  education  independently. 
This  task  implies  not  only  analytic  knowledge  of  human 
nature  in  its  manifold  relations,  but  also  the  power  of  syn- 
thetic thought.  The  great  body  of  teachers,  therefore,  need 
supervision  in  constructing  their  system  of  educational  prin- 
ciples. It  is  hoped  that  the  plan  of  the  present  treatise  may 
supply  at  least  a  portion  of  the  needed  supervision. 

In  complexity  of  "  thought"  and  "  language,"  the  needs  of 
the  general  reader  as  well  as  those  of  Normal  Schools  and  Col- 

3 


5.^°\5.'^ 


4  PEEFACE 

leges  were  kept  in  mind.  The  psychological  analyses  and  in- 
ductions, and  all  derivatives,  have  been  adapted  in  vocabulary 
and  composition  to  the  ordinary  reader,  while  the  systematic 
thinking  required  throughout  the  book  will  employ  the  best 
powers  of  readers  of  higher  attainments. 

The  cyclopedic  scope  of  the  treatise  is  justified  by  the  cyclo- 
pedic courses  of  study  in  our  common  schools.  Experience 
shows  that  it  will  not  suffice  to  train  teachers  in  the  principles 
and  methods  of  a  few  branches  with  the  hope  that  they  will 
then  know  how  to  proceed  in  the  other  branches.  This  dis- 
covery should  not  surprise  us ;  for,  although  the  development 
of  knowledge  is  generically  the  same  in  all  departments  of  study, 
the  individual  features  of  the  various  studies  require  special 
modifications  in  the  methods  of  their  development. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  plan  of  this  treatise  may  commend 
itself  to  the  judgment  of  teachers. 

(1)  The  nature  of  man,  especially  the  psychical  processes  and 
principles,  is  made  the  first  subject  of  inquiry. 

(2)  The  conclusion  that  education  should  consist  of  such  de- 
velopment of  man's  possibilities  as  best  fit  him  for  complete 
living  seems  unavoidable. 

(3)  The  essential  features  of  this  ideal  development  of  man 
are  exhibited  in  the  chapter  on  the  nature  of  education,  and  a 
synthesis  of  these  views  is  found  in  the  general  principles  of 
education. 

(4)  The  principles  of  culture,  knowledge,  and  instruction 
are  deductions  from  the  general  principles  of  education,  as 
confirmed  inductively  by  the  history  of  education. 

(5)  The  proposed  methods  of  culture  and  instruction  are 
practical  deductions  confirmed  by  the  experience  of  the  best 
teachers.  Special  attention  is  called  to  the  proposed  science- 
method  of  instruction,  i.e.,  the  development  of  all  branches  by 
observation,  induction,  and  deduction,  the  ideal  succession  of 
mental  activities.     It  is  believed  that,  all  other  things  equal, 


PREFACE  5 

the  teacher  who  catches  the  spirit  of  this  method  will  work 
the  most  intelligently  and  obtain  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
The  history  of  education  in  Germany,  France,  and  parts  of 
America  clearly  confirms  this  conclusion. 

For  extensive  treatment  of  the  science  of  education  the 
reader  is  respectfully  referred  to  such  standard  works  on  teach- 
ing as  Rosenkranz's  "  Philosophy  of  Education,"  and  Tomp- 
kins' "  Philosophy  of  Teaching,"  to  which  this  treatise  is  de- 
signed to  be  a  stepping  stone,  and  with  whose  theories  American 
teachers  are  happily  becoming  better  acquainted.  Grateful 
acknowledgment  is  here  made  to  the  various  inspiring  writers 
consulted  and  quoted  by  the  author. 

This  book  is  humbly  dedicated  to  the  teachers  of  our  coun- 
try, with  the  sincere  hope  that  it  may  be  of  service  to  them 
and  their  pupils,  and  to  the  cause  of  education  in  general. 

Chaeles  C.  Boyee. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

Fkkface   5 


PART  I. 
PSYCHOLOGY. 

CHAPTER 

I,    Mental  AcriviTy 12 

II.    Laws  of  Mental  Activity 25 

PART  II. 

PEINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING. 

I.     Natuee  op  Education  :  General  Principles 33 

11.     Principles  of  Culture 41 

III.  Nature  of  Knowledge 46 

IV.  Principles  op  Knowledge 59 

V.    Principles  op  Instruction 67 

PART  III. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

I.    Mental  Culture 79 

II.    Objeot  Lessons      89 

III.  Eeading 106 

IV.  Writing 181 

V.    Spelling 145 

VI.     Composition 169 

VII.     Grammar 204 

VIII,     Arithmetic      240 

IX.     Geography      282 

X.    History 310 

7 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB  PAGE 

XI.     Deawing 328 

XII.     Manual  Training     347 

XIII.  Physiology      359 

XIV.  Physical  Cultuke 363 

XV.    Singing 371 

Reference  Books  for  Collateral  Reading 383 

Index 389 


PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS 
OF  TEACHING. 


PART  I. 
PSYCHOLOGY. 


PRINCIPLES    AND    METHODS 
OF   TEACHING. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  theory  of  teaching,  as  we  shall  see,  has  to  do  with  the 
pupil's  body  as  well  as  with  the  mind.  Since  our  present 
purpose  forbids  extended  reference  to  physiology,  it  must  be 
taken  for  granted  that  the  reader  is  familiar  with  that  science. 
Pedagogics,  however,  consists  so  largely  of  psychology,  and 
teachers  are  so  generally  in  need  of  a  compact  restatement  of 
the  fundamental  truths  of  this  science,  that  an  introductory 
reference  to  its  method,  as  well  as  to  the  nature  and  laws  of 
mental  activity,  is  indispensable  in  a  treatise  on  teaching. 
As  a  process  psychology,  like  all  other  sciences,  consists  of 
observation  of  phenomena  and  the  ascertainment  of  their  laws. 
In  other  words,  the  student  (1)  observes  his  own  mental  ex- 
periences or  those  of  other  minds,  (2)  grants  for  the  time 
being  that  these  experiences  are  individuals  of  a  genus,  and 
(3)  tests  the  truth  of  such  hypothesis  by  means  of  numerous 
experiments  in  which  the  conditions  are  varied  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Though  brief  and  compact  by  necessity,  the  following 
chapters  on  the  nature  and  laws  of  mental  activity  illustrate 
the  process  of  psychology  and  are  considered  necessary  intro- 
ductions to  the  present  treatise.  The  student  who  will  take 
time  to  study  these  preparatory  portions  thoroughly  should  be 
able  to  master  the  rest  of  the  book  with  considerable  ease. 

11 


12  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER  I. 

MENTAL   ACTIVITY. 

The  phenomena  with  which  the  self-observing  mind  meets 
are  not  a  classified  collection  of  distinct  elements,  but  rather  a 
mass  whose  elements  must  be  discovered  by  analysis.  The 
mass,  as  the  self-observing  mind  discovers  by  analysis,  con- 
sists of  a  synthesis  of  distinct  elements ;  but  the  order  in 
which  these  elements  become  distinct  depends,  of  course,  on 
the  individual  observer,  the  time  of  his  observations,  the  pre- 
dominance of  some  elements  over  others  at  the  time  of  observa- 
tion, etc.  If,  however,  these  elements  became  distinct  to  the 
observer  in  their  necessary  order  of  dependence,  as  appears 
from  subsequent  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  these  elements, 
they  would  present  themselves  to  the  observer  somewhat  as 
follows  :  (1)  Sensation,  (2)  Ideation,  (3)  Relation  and  Emotion, 
and  (4)  Volition. 

I.  INTELLECT. 

The  phenomena  of  sensation,  ideation,  and  relation,  as  will 
appear  in  the  sequel,  deserve  our  attention  under  the  head  of 
Intellect. 

Sensation.  The  observing  mind  discovers  variations  in  its 
phenomena  corresponding  to  the  variations  in  its  physical  en- 
vironment. These  variations,  as  physiological  psychology 
teaches,  are  the  "affects"  of  "impresses"  on  the  "end-organs" 
of  the  "sensorium,"  and  are  termed  Sensations.  In  other 
words.  Mental  states  arising  from  bodily  stimuli,  and  through 
the  interpretation  of  which  we  get  a  knowledge  of  the  world  around 
us,  are  termed  Sensations. 

Ideation.  Mental  "images"  of  the  external  or  internal 
"  objects"  for  which  mental  data  stand,  are  termed  Ideas,  and 
the  process  of  forming  ideas  is  termed  Ideation.     The  process, 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  13 

as  further  analysis  will  show,  begins  in  sense-presentation ; 
analysis  and  synthesis  follow.  In  all  phases  of  ideation  the 
mind  only  "  posits"  objects  without  dwelling  on  likeness,  dif- 
ference, necessity,  etc.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  "  copula" 
in  ideation.  The  copula,  as  we  shall  see,  forms  "thoughts" 
out  of  ideas.  This  distinction,  since  its  description  is  so  diffi- 
cult, should  be  illustrated  by  means  of  logical  "propositions," 
in  which  "  ideation"  and  "  copula"  (relation)  are  respectively 
the  initial  and  final  necessities.  The  various  phases  of  idea- 
tion, as  already  intimated,  are  as  follows  : 

Pe7'ception.  The  mind  observes  repetition  of  sensations  in 
the  repetition  of  external  impresses,  and  thus  learns  to  refer 
sensations  to  such  impacts  as  causes.  In  this  way  sensations 
become  "data"  by  means  of  which  the  mind  identifies  its 
whereabouts  in  space  and  time.  It  is  not  only  through  the 
special  sense  organs,  as  the  eye  or  ear,  that  we  obtain  a  knowl- 
edge of  physical  environment,  but  also  through  all  the  other 
species  of  sensation  of  which  man  is  capable.  The  complex 
phenomenon  in  question  is  termed  Perception.  In  other  words, 
The  interpretation  of  sensations  is  termed  Perception.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  Latin  words  per,  by  means  of,  and 
capio,  I  take  hold  of.  The  mental  results  thus  obtained  are 
termed  Percepts. 

Memory.  Sensations,  and,  as  physiological  psychology 
teaches,  all  mental  experiences,  inasmuch  as  in  the  present 
junction  of  body  and  mind  they  are  inseparable  from  simul- 
taneous sensations,  leave  association  tracks  or  paths  in  the 
neural  apparatus.  By  means  of  these  associations  the  mind 
revives  and  recognizes  its  experiences.  This  complex  phe- 
nomenon is  termed  Memory  ;  the  later  "  editions"  of  mental 
experiences  thus  obtained  are  termed  Memories.  In  other 
words.  The  process  of  retaining,  reviving,  and  recognizing 
menial  experiences  is  termed  Memory.  The  tendency  of  defi- 
nite and  frequent  associations  to  persist,  is  termed  Habit,  or 


14  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Retention.  Voluntary  memory  is  termed  Recollection.  The 
essential  element  of  memory  as  mental  phenomenon  is  Recog- 
nition, i.e.,  the  knowledge  that  what  has  come  back  is  a  later 
edition  of  our  own  mental  experiences. 

Imagination.  In  perception  the  mind  comes  into  actual  con- 
tact with  realities  ;  in  memory  past  realities  are  represented 
with  great  fidelity.  Since,  as  physiological  psychology  teaches, 
the  cortical  tracts  of  perception  and  memory  are  the  same,  any 
stimulation  of  these  tracts,  whether  the  origin  of  the  stimulus 
be  within  the  mind  itself  or  in  the  sensorium,  will  produce  a 
semblance  either  of  perception  or  of  memory.  (1)  The  pri- 
mary phase  of  imagination,  as  in  illusions  and  dreams,  resem- 
bles perception  and  memory  very  closely.  In  the  effort  to 
construct  historical  and  fictitious  events,  etc.,  imagination  be- 
comes a  mental  substitute  for  perception.  (2)  In  its  second 
phase,  as  in  the  mental  projection  of  lines,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  wholes,  etc.,  imagination  is  mental  emancipation  from 
the  perception-lunits  of  space  and  time,  and  from  the  normal 
correlation  of  parts,  epochs,  etc.  Thus  imagination  becomes 
a  supplement  of  perception  and  the  means  of  mental  transi- 
tion from  the  real  to  the  possible,  etc.  (3)  In  the  third  phase 
of  imagination  the  mind,  in  obedience  to  the  stimulus  of  ses- 
thetic,  moral,  or  philosophic  abstractions,  forms  "  new  combi- 
nations" out  of  materials  furnished  by  perception  and  mem- 
ory, but  always  in  terms  of  perception,  as  in  the  conceptions 
of  artists,  moralists,  scientists,  and  inventors.  The  process  in 
question,  in  all  its  reproductive  and  productive,  voluntary  and 
involuntary  phases,  is,  as  appears,  really  "representative," 
although  as  to  its  perfection  the  representation  may  vary  from 
the  faintest  resemblance  to  perception  or  memory  to  infinite 
extensions.  This  process  of  apprehending  possibilities  sug- 
gested by  experienced  realities  is  termed  Imagination,  from  the 
Latin  word  imago,  copy  or  likeness.  In  short.  The  apprehen- 
sion of  possibilities  as  perceptions  is  termed  Imagination. 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  15 

Abstraction.  Qualities,  as  physiological  psychology  teaches, 
first  become  the  object  of  thought  in  perception  and  self-con- 
sciousness. Our  first  ideas  of  brittleness,  beauty,  right,  and 
truth,  for  example,  are  formed  in  the  perception  or  conscious- 
ness of  things  that  suggest  these  ideas  to  the  mind.  The  ideas 
thus  formed  are  termed  "  concrete,"  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  formed  without  dissociating  the  qualities  from  the  things 
to  which  they  belong.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  make  quali- 
ties the  object  of  thought  without  reference  to  the  things  in 
which  they  are  found  by  perception  and  introspection.  It 
is  thus  that  we  may  think  of  brittleness,  beauty,  right,  and 
truth,  without  reference  to  things  which  suggest  these  ideas  to 
the  mind.  The  sesthetical,  ethical,  and  philosophical  distinc- 
tions, i.e.,  those  of  beauty,  morality,  and  truth,  generally  ap- 
pear later  and  mature  more  slowly  than  the  other  distinctions 
now  under  consideration.  The  mental  process  in  question  is 
termed  Abstraction,  from  the  Latin  words  ahs,  from,  and  traho, 
I  draw.  In  short,  The  process  of  making  any  quality  an  object 
of  thought  is  termed  Abstraction.  The  peculiarities  of  several 
of  these  abstract  -distinctions,  especially  their  distance  from 
the  concrete,  and  their  universality,  led  the  "  older"  psycholo- 
gists to  classify  them  separately  as  "intuitions,"  from  the 
Latin  words  in,  into,  and  tueor,  I  see.  The  "  new"  classifi- 
cation simplifies  matters  without  injustice  to  truth.  The 
power  of  sesthetic  abstraction  is  termed  Taste,  and  that  of 
moral  abstraction  is  termed  Conscience.  The  sesthetic  and 
moral  distinctions,  i.e.,  those  of  "  beauty"  and  "  right,"  gen- 
erally appear  somewhat  later  and  mature  more  slowly  than 
other  abstract  distinctions. 

Generalization.  Our  first  ideas  of  things,  as  apples,  horses, 
government,  etc.,  are  percepts,  as  already  shown.  Two  species 
of  synthesis  follow  :  (1)  The  mind  discovers  that  some  of  the 
individuals  of  perception,  memory,  etc.,  have  common  proper- 
ties.     Apprehending  these  common  properties  in  successive 


16  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

abstractions,  and  synthesizing  the  successive  impressions  into 
mental  wholes,  the  mind  forms  object-concepts,  as  recorded  in 
common  nouns.  It  is  in  this  way  that  our  idea  of  a  house, 
book,  or  bell,  develops  with  our  experience.  (2)  The  mind 
also  discovers  varieties  of  the  same  quality,  as  sweetness,  in 
otherwise  dissimilar  individuals,  as  sugar,  apples,  dispositions, 
etc.  Apprehending  these  varieties  of  the  same  quality  in  suc- 
cessive abstractions,  and  synthesizing  the  successive  impres- 
sions into  mental  wholes,  the  mind  forms  quality-concepts, 
as  recorded  in  abstract  nouns. 

A  collection  of  similar  individuals  (objects  or  qualities)  is 
termed  a  Genus.  Object-concepts  and  quality-concepts,  as 
recorded  respectively  in  common  and  abstract  nouns,  may 
therefore  be  termed  General  Ideas,  and  the  process  of  synthe- 
sis in  which  they  originate  may  be  termed  Generalization. 
The  great  Herbart  preferred  the  term  Apperception,  from 
the  belief  that  all  concepts  are  derived  from  perception.  In 
short.  The  synthetic  enlargement  of  ideas  is  termed  Generaliza- 
tion. 

Consciousness.  Of  its  own  states  and  acts  the  mind  is 
aware  somewhat  in  the  same  sense  as  the  world  without  us  ap- 
pears to  the  senses.  In  the  phenomenon  in  question  the  mind 
becomes  its  own  "  object  of  thought,"  very  much  as  a  plant  is 
made  an  object  of  perception.  This  process  of  introspection 
is  termed  Consciousness,  from  the  Latin  words  con,  at  the 
same  time,  and  sdo,  I  know.  Children,  as  experiments  prove, 
are  for  months  only  indefinitely  conscious  of  the  "self^  of 
consciousness.  It  is  only  by  and  by  that  the  child  learns  to 
distinguish  "self"  sharply  from  "other."  Ordinarily  the 
untutored  adult  observes  his  own  states  and  acts  as  little  as 
the  novice  in  botany  observes  the  flowers  at  his  feet.  The 
tutored  mind  not  only  knows  that  "  self"  is  the  "  object  of 
thought"  in  consciousness,  but  observes  its  own  acts  and  states 
as  the  botanist  observes  flowers,  i.e.,  critically,  in  order  to 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  17 

ascertain  properties  and  relations.  Voluntary  consciousness 
is  the  primary  source  of  information  in  the  "  mental"  sciences. 
(See  the  chapter  on  Knowledge.)  Abstraction  and  generaliza- 
tion follow  consciousness  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  they 
follow  the  process  of  perception.  In  short,  The  process  of  in- 
trospection by  which  the  mind  becomes  aware  of  its  own  states 
and  acts,  is  termed  Consciousness. 

Thought.  The  mental  processes  of  which  the  various 
species  of  "  sentences"  are  expressions,  are  evidently  arrange- 
ments of  ideas  rather  than  formations  of  ideas.  The  mental 
activity  in  question  resolves  itself  into  two  species. 

Judgment.  In  the  act  of  judgment,  as  expressed  in  a  logi- 
cal proposition,  the  mind  passes  from  one  object  of  thought  to 
another  to  ascertain  their  agreement  or  disagreement,  as  when 
we  estimate  length,  weight,  worth,  etc.  The  process  is  often 
termed  Direct  Comparison.  It  is  termed  "  direct"  comparison 
because  in  the  act  of  judgment  only  two  objects  of  thought  are 
in  question.  The  term  "comparison"  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  words  con,  with,  and  par,  equal.  Accordingly,  The 
process  of  comparing  objects  of  thought,  and.  thus  deciding  as  to 
their  agreement  or  disagreement,  is  termed  Judgment. 

As  soon  as,  in  the  course  of  our  comparisons,  we  find  a 
number  of  similar  individuals  we  group  them  on  the  ground 
of  such  similarity.  Sorting  books,  plants,  insects,  actions,  etc., 
illustrates  the  process,  which,  whether  it  be  only  mental  or  also 
physical,  is  termed  Classification.  In  "  common"  classification 
physical  properties  are  the  bases  of  judgment,  as  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  books  in  a  library ;  in  "  scientific"  classification  the 
relations  ascertained  by  complete  induction  are  the  bases  of 
judgment,  as  in  Natural  History.  In  short.  The  process  of 
grouping  individuals  on  grounds  of  resemblance,  is  termed  Clas- 
sification. (1)  Progressive  classification,  i.e.,  the  formation  of 
groups  of  individuals,  as  in  addition,  multiplication,  and  the 
constructing  of  a  sentence,  is  termed  Synthesis,  from  the  Greek 

2 


18  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

words  syn,  together,  and  tithemi,  I  put.  (2)  Regressive  classifi- 
cation, i.e.,  the  isolation  of  individuals  that  compose  a  class, 
whole,  or  genus,  as  in  subtraction,  division,  and  the  separating 
of  a  sentence  into  its  component  parts,  is  termed  Analysis,  from 
the  Greek  words  ana,  up,  and  luo,  I  break. 

Reasoning.  The  formation  of  judgments,  i.e.,  the  process  of 
relating  ideas,  is  termed  Thinking,  or  Thought.  "  Thoughts" 
may  in  turn  become  the  "  object  of  thought,"  i.e.,  the  process  of 
relating  ideas  may  be  indirect  as  well  as  direct.  This  process 
of  thinking  is  termed  Reasoning.  In  short,  The  process  of  re- 
lating thoughts  and  drawing  a  conclusion  from  such  relation  is 
termed  Reasoning.     There  are  two  species  of  Reasoning. 

(1)  The  process  of  reasoning  from  a  particular  judgment, 
i.e.,  a  judgment  concerning  individuals,  to  a  general  judg- 
ment, i.e.,  a  judgment  concerning  a  genus,  is  termed  Induction. 
The  following  combination  of  thoughts  illustrates  induction : 
The  sum  of  the  angles  of  this  triangle  is  two  right  angles ;  the 
same  thing  is  true  of  all  observed  triangles ;  therefore,  the  sum 
of  the  angles  of  any  triangle  is  two  right  angles. 

(2)  The  process  of  reasoning  from  a  general  to  a  particular 
judgment  is  termed  Deduction.  The  following  combination 
of  judgments  illustrates  deduction  :  The  sum  of  the  angles  of 
any  triangle  is  two  right  angles  ;  abo  is  a  triangle ;  therefore, 
the  sum  of  its  angles  is  two  right  angles. 

The  common  idea  of  two  associated  judgments  is  known  in 
logic  as  the  "  middle"  term.  The  M^ord  triangle  in  the  first 
two  judgments  of  the  above  illustrations  names  the  middle 
term,  and  is  itself  often  called  by  that  name.  Two  judgments 
that  have  a  "  middle  term"  are  known  as  "  related"  judgments, 
as  in  the  illustrations.  Two  judgments  so  related  that  a  third 
judgment  grows  out  of  their  relation,  are  termed  Premises, 
from  the  Latin  words  pre,  before,  and  mitto,  I  send.  (See  the 
illustrations.)  The  consequence  of  the  relation  of  two  judgments 
is  termed  the  Conclusion,  from  the  Latin  words  con,  together, 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  19 

and  cludo,  I  close,  (See  illustrations.)  The  derivation  of  a 
judgment  from  the  relation  of  two  judgments,  is  termed  Syl- 
logism, from  the  Greek  word  syn,  together,  and  logizomai,  I 
reckon.     (See  illustrations.) 

The  term  "  uuderstanding"  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
"  thought"  processes  in  question.  Thought,  or  understanding, 
as  psychology  teaches,  is  always  fundamental  in  ideation.  In 
the  broadest  sense,  any  process  of  forming  ideas  or  thoughts, 
whether  the  mind  thus  arrives  at  "  knowledge,"  or  ^'  truth," 
i.e.,  ideas  and  thoughts  which  are  true,  or  only  at  "  opinion," 
i.e.,  ideas  and  thoughts  which  may  or  may  not  be  true,  is 
termed  Thinking.  If  the  mind  thus  arrives  at  knowledge, 
the  process  is  termed  Knowing.  The  mind's  power  of  think- 
ing and  knowing  is  termed  Intellect. 

II.  SENSIBILITY. 

The  consequences  (see  Total  Reaction,  next  chapter)  of  in- 
tellectual activity,  are  states  and  moods  of  mental  pleasure  or 
pain.  These  mental  states  and  moods  are  termed  Feelings,  or 
Sensibilities,  or  Emotions,  and  the  function  of  mental  feeling  is 
termed  Semihility,  or  Emotion.  The  feelings  are  significantly 
termed  Emotions,  from  the  Latin  words  e,  out,  and  moveo,  I 
move,  because,  whether  simple  or  complex,  they  tend  to  re- 
veal themselves  in  the  face,  eyes,  and  carriage  of  the  person 
affected. 

Simple  Emotions.  There  is  a  species  of  mental  pleasure 
or  pain,  commonly  termed  gladness  or  sadness,  in  which  the 
emotion  is  not  an  attitude,  or  trend,  toward  the  causes  of  the 
pleasure  or  pain,  but  simply  a  state,  or  condition,  to  which  the 
person  affected  has  been  moved  by  sensation,  ideas,  or  thoughts. 
This  species  of  mental  feeling  is  therefore  said  to  be  Subjective 
rather  than  Objective,  i.e..  Simple  in  its  reference  to  "  self" 
rather  than  to  others.  Accordingly,  Feelings  that  are  not  atti- 
tudes, but  only  states,  are  termed  Simple  Emotions.     Or,  Feel- 


20  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ings  that  are  only  states  of  mental  pleasure  or  pain,  and  not 
also  attitudes,  or  dispositions,  toward  the  causes  of  the  mental 
pleasure  or  pain,  are  termed  Simple  Emotions.  "  Cheerful- 
ness," "good  mood,"  "melancholy,"  "mental  distemper," — 
these  are  the  familiar  descriptions  of  simple  emotions. 

Affections.  That  which  gives  pleasure,  or  that  which  has 
worth,  or  that  which  has  come  intimately  into  our  life,  readily 
becomes  an  object  of  endearment,  or  sympathy,  or  respect,  or 
esteem.  When  something  has  thus  become  "  dear"  to  us  the 
feeling  is  termed  Love.  Friendship,  gratitude,  patriotism,  and 
piety,  are  familiar  species  of  Love.  The  absence,  as  well  as 
the  opposite,  of  love,  is  technically  termed  Hate.  Ingratitude, 
heartlessness,  and  impiety,  are  familiar  species  of  hate. 

In  simple  emotion  there  is  no  object  upon  which  the  feeling 
centres ;  but  in  love  and  hate  there  is  always  an  object.  If 
the  object  is  "self,"  the  emotional  attitude  is  termed  Egoistic; 
if  the  object  is  "another,"  the  attitude  is  termed  Altruistic. 
In  other  words,  love  and  hate  are  dispositions  toward,  or  rela- 
tions to,  some  person  or  thing,  be  it  self  or  other,  and  they 
are  significantly  termed  Affections,  from  the  Latin  words  ad, 
toward,  and  fectio,  disposition.  Accordingly,  Feelings  that 
are  not  only  states  of  mental  pleasure  or  pain,  but  also  atti- 
tudes of  approbation  or  disapprobation  toward  the  causes  of 
the  pleasure  or  pain,  are  termed  Affections.  Or,  Feelings  that 
are  not  only  states,  but  also  attitudes  of  approbation  or  disappro- 
bation, are  termed  Affections. 

Desires.  Pleasure,  sympathy,  respect,  esteem,  etc.,  often 
become  longings,  or  demands,  to  possess  or  enjoy  that  which 
gives  pleasure,  or  appears  to  deserve  respect,  or  esteem.  If 
tliat  which  the  "  heart"  demands  is  at  a  distance,  or  difficult 
to  attain,  the  demand  may  become  intense  suffering,  as  in  the 
case  of  thirst  or  personal  attachments.  When  this  intense 
feeling  becomes  "  master"  it  is  termed  Passion,  as  in  the  case 
of  ambition  and  avarice. 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  21 

The  feelings  now  under  consideration  do  not  only  centre 
upon  an  object,  but  they  also  insist  on  possessing  and  enjoying 
that  object.  This  insistence,  egoistic  or  altruistic,  to  possess 
and  enjoy  that  which  we  long  to  possess  and  enjoy,  is  denoted, 
for  want  of  a  better  word,  by  the  term  Attractive,  in  the  sense 
of  a  demand.  These  feelings  of  longing,  or  demand,  are  there- 
fore not  only  objective,  but  also  attractive. 

To  all  species  of  emotional  demand,  positive  and  negative, 
the  term  Dedre  has  been  applied.  Accordingly,  Feelings 
that  are  not  only  attitudes,  but  also  demands,  are  termed 
Desires.  Or,  Feelings  that  are  not  only  attitudes  of  appro- 
bation or  disapprobation  toward  the  causes  of  the  mental 
pleasure  or  pain,  but  also  requests  to  possess  the  causes  of 
pleasure,  or  to  escape  the  causes  of  pain,  are  termed  Desires. 
Avarice,  ambition,  revenge,  etc.,  are  familiar  species  of  De- 
sire. Desires  whose  objects,  as  food  or  stimulants,  are  de- 
manded for  physical  gratification,  are  termed  Appetites  ;  those 
whose  objects,  as  knowledge  or  power,  are  demanded  for 
mental  gratification,  are  termed  Sentiments.  The  desire  "to 
know"  is  termed  Interest,  or  Curiosity.  (Interest  is  often  an 
affection.) 

Expectations.  Faith  in  the  possibility  of  attaining  that 
which  is  desired,  is  termed  Expectancy.  The  union  of  ex- 
pectancy and  the  longing  to  possess  that  which  is  deemed 
capable  of  giving  pleasure,  is  termed  Hope.  Deprived  of 
this  expectancy,  Hope  becomes  Despair.  In  other  words. 
Desire  deprived  of  expectancy  is  termed  Despair.  The 
union  of  expectancy  and  the  longing  to  escape  that  which  is 
deemed  capable  of  giving  pain,  is  termed  Fear.  Fear  ceases, 
or  else  becomes  Hope,  when  expectancy  is  removed.  Thus 
it  appears  that  hope  and  fear  have  the  common  element  of 
expectancy.  Accordingly,  Desires  coupled  with  faith  in  their 
attainment,  are  termed  Expectations. 

The  manifestations   of  sensibility  are   Simple    Emotions, 


22  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Affections,  Desires,  and  that  modification  of  Desires  termed 

Expectations. 

III.  WILL. 

We  attempt  to  determine  our  "  trend,"  whether  it  be  of 
mind  or  body.  In  this  attempt  we  assume  our  power  to  be 
our  own  master  and  sovereign.  Within  definable  limits  this 
assumption  is  correct,  as  experience  goes  to  show.  In  other 
words,  we  can  "govern"  ourselves,  as  well  as  think  and  feel. 
The  ability  to  govern  ourselves,  however  limited  the  domain 
may  prove  to  be,  is  termed  Will,  and  any  exercise  of  this  ability 
is  termed  Willing,  or  Volition. 

Motives.  Possible  courses  of  activity  come  to  our  view  as 
cross-roads  do  on  a  journey.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  mental 
pause,  and  it  resembles  the  traveller's  halting  at  the  cross- 
roads. In  this  time  of  mental  poise  we  compare  the  merits, 
real  or  supposed,  of  the  alternatives  in  view,  as,  for  example, 
when  we  try  to  "  make  up"  our  mind  on  some  point  of  duty. 
The  considerations  that  influence  this  mental  struggle,  as  in 
temptation,  may  be  either  intellectual  or  emotional,  as  in  a 
case  of  conscience  and  passion.  There  may  be  either  harmony 
or  opposition  of  intellect  and  sensibility,  as  in  obedience  to 
law.  The  influences  in  this  mental  poise,  whether  they  be  in- 
tellectual or  emotional,  are  termed  Motives,  from  the  Latin 
word  moveo,  I  move.  The  mental  struggle  with  motives  may 
be  very  great ;  but  normally  it  it  possible  to  resist  any  motive, 
and  to  act  in  opposition  to  it.  This  possibility  distinguishes 
motives  from  causes,  and  justifies  the  pause  to  which  we  resort. 
Accordingly,  The  influences  that  enter,  but  do  not  irresistibly 
determine  a  voluntary  struggle,  are  termed  Motives. 

Decision.  The  struggle  with  motives  generally  terminates 
in  the  voluntary  selection  of  some  alternative.  This  selection 
is  termed  a  Decision,  or  Choice.  Accordingly,  The  voluntary 
selection  of  an  altei^native  after  comparing  it  with  others,  is 
termed  Decision.     If  there  be  only  two  alternatives,  i.e.,  if  the 


MENTAL  ACTIVITY  23 

choice  be  limited  to  the  selection  and  refusal  of  a  course,  the 
selection  is  termed  Fiat,  and  the  refusal,  Neget  In  other 
words,  Fiat  is  positive,  and  Neget,  negative  Decision. 

Intention.  The  alternative  selected  may  be  something  dis- 
tant in  time  or  attainment,  as  political  preferment.  Such  a 
selection  is  termed  Intention.  Accordingly,  The  voluntary  se- 
lection of  an  alternative  vjhose  attainment  is  prospective,  is  termed 
Intention.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  intend  to  be  graduates, 
or  to  become  what  we  have  not  yet  become.  Vigorous  inten- 
tion is  termed  Purpose,  and  undeviating,  invincible  purpose, 
is  termed  Resolution.  It  is  in  the  latter  sense  that  we  resolve 
to  be  successful,  whatever  it  may  cost,  and  however  exhaust- 
ing the  struggle  may  prove. 

Attention.  In  a  limited  way  it  is  possible  to  control  our 
mental  activity,  i.e.,  to  determine  its  course,  its  steadiness,  and 
its  continuance  on  the  same  track.  In  other  words,  we  can, 
under  normal  conditions,  determine  our  mental  trend  at  any 
conscious  moment  of  time.  This  exercise  of  voluntary  power 
is  of  several  species.  (1)  It  may  be  a  submission,  more  or 
less  unflagging,  to  the  demands  of  another  will,  as  in  listening 
or  reading.  (2)  It  may  be  devotion,  more  or  less  undeviating, 
to  one  interest  or  task,  as  in  study  or  play.  (3)  It  may  be  a 
transitive  decision  in  thinking,  as  in  the  dismission  of  one 
thought  in  order  to  admit  or  continue  another,  as  in  passing 
from  one  study  to  another.  The  phenomena  just  described  are 
termed  Attention,  from  the  Latin  words  ad,  toward,  and  tendo, 
I  stretch.  Accordingly,  Continuity  of  thought  in  one  groove, 
especially  voluntary  continuity,  is  termed  Attention.  Or,  the 
voluntary  process  of  keeping  the  mind  at  work  on  one  thing 
rather  than  on  others,  is  termed  Attention.  Or,  Thinking  of 
one  alternative  rather  than  of  others,  is  termed  Attention. 

Motives  are  present  in  voluntary  activity,  but  voluntary 
activity  itself  assumes  the  phases  of  decision,  intention,  and 
attention. 


24  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Conclusion.  The  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  has  been 
to  observe,  classify,  and  define  mental  phenomena.  We  have 
thus  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  thinking,  feeling,  and  will- 
ing, are  the  possible  mental  phenomena,  and  that  there  are  no 
other  species. 

Mind.  It  must  be  evident  enough  to  any  one  who  observes 
himself  in  the  concrete,  that  thinking,  feeling,  and  willing,  are 
not  physical  phenomena,  i.e.,  phenomena  of  matter.  In  other 
words,  it  is  not  our  body  that  thinks,  feels,  and  wills ;  it  is  our 
"  self,"  the  mind,  or  soul,  or  spirit.  Though  it  be  in  most 
intimate  junction  with  the  body  in  which  it  dwells,  the  mind 
is  not  the  "  function"  of  the  body,  but  a  distinct  entity  that 
itself  has  functions.  This  assumption  implies  several  attri- 
butes of  mind,  (1)  If  mind  is  not  matter,  it  is  spirit.  (2) 
If  mind  is  not  matter,  it  is  indivisible,  or  simple.  (3)  If 
mind  is  not  matter,  it  cannot  lose  its  numerical  identity.  (4) 
If  mind  is  not  a  function,  it  is  an  entity.  Accordingly,  TJie 
simple,  spiritual  entity  which  thinks,  feels,  and  wills,  is  termed 
Mind. 

Psychology.  To  study  mind  in  order  to  deal  with  it,  is 
the  indispensable  prerequisite  in  pedagogy.  (See  the  method, 
beginning  of  this  chapter.)  The  problems  are  numerous. 
The  first  problem  is,  to  observe  the  mental  phenomena,  and  to 
ascertain  their  laws.  This  science  is  termed  Psychology,  from 
the  Greek  words  psyche,  soul,  and  logos,  discourse.  Accord- 
ingly, The  observation  of  mental  phenomena,  and  the  ascertain- 
ment of  their  laws,  is  termed  Psychology. 


LAWS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  25 

CHAPTER    11. 

LAWS   OF   MENTAL   ACTIVITY. 

Mental  activity,  as  experiments  prove,  is  subject  to  laws, 
a  knowledge  of  which  is  essential  to  pedagogics. 

Interaction.  (I.)  The  activities  of  which  the  mind  is  capa- 
ble, as  psychology  teaches,  are  sensation,  ideation,  relation,  emo- 
tion, and  volition.  The  various  modes  of  ideation,  as  shown  in 
the  preceding  chapter,  are  perception,  consciousness,  abstrac- 
tion, and  generalization.  Memory  is  essential  to  all  processes 
of  ideation,  and  imagination  is  a  mode  of  ideation  in  which 
the  mind  transforms  and  transcends  its  percepts,  memories, 
concepts,  etc.  The  two  modes  of  relation  are  direct  and  in- 
direct judgment. 

In  psychology  we  isolate  these  activities  as  if  they  were  in- 
dependent individuals;  they  are,  however,  really  a  constant 
complex  of  complements,  i.e.,  they  always  either  imply  or 
solicit  each  other  as  phases  of  one  entirety.  Any  disturbance 
in  this  interaction,  as  may  be  seen  in  abnormal  mental  action, 
interferes  with  the  perfection  of  the  entirety.  In  short,  inter- 
action is  a  law  of  mental  activity. 

Summation  of  Stimuli.  (II.)  The  hardest  sleeper  awakes 
when  the  amount  of  stimulus  is  sufficiently  increased.  Who- 
ever knows  how  to  add  influences  up  to  a  certain  amount  can 
win  the  attention  of  the  most  indifferent  person.  A  multipli- 
cation of  "  cues"  enables  us  at  last  to  come  upon  a  forgotten 
name.  A  greater  number  of  incentives  or  a  stronger  motive 
finally  overcomes  emotional  or  voluntary  opposition.  Ever 
cumulating  considerations  at  last  conquer  the  most  sullen  sin- 
ner and  win  him  for  God.  Indeed,  character  and  conduct 
seem  to  be  nothing  other  than  rational  or  emotional  sequences 


26  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  such  summation  of  stimuli.  In  other  words,  mental  activity 
is  subject  to  summation  of  stimuli. 

Neurosis.  (III.)  Since  perception  is  simply  the  interpreta- 
tion of  sensations,  neurosis,  i.e.,  neural  activity,  must  be  the 
physical  basis.  Neurosis,  as  physiological  psychology  teaches, 
is  the  indispensable  condition  of  consciousness.  The  physical 
basis  of  memory,  as  already  shown,  is  neurosis.  Recent  ex- 
periments prove  that  illusion  and  hallucination  can  be  brought 
about  by  drugs  and  electrical  stimulation  of  the  sensory  tracts. 
This  means  that  the  nerve-tracts  of  perception  are  also  the 
tracts  of  imagination.  The  fatigue  that  follows  severe  mental 
application,  however  abstract  the  thinking  may  be,  is  sufficient 
proof  that  neurosis  accompanies  the  higher  intellectual  processes. 
All  species  of  emotion,  whether  simple  or  complex,  are  attended 
by  neurosis,  as  palpitation  of  the  heart,  pallor,  trembling  limbs, 
etc.,  clearly  show.  Volition  is  communicated  to  executive  or- 
ganisms through  neurosis.  To  be  brief,  in  the  present  junc- 
tion of  body  and  mind,  neurosis  accompanies  psychosis,  i.e., 
mental  activity. 

Sensation.  (IV.)  In  many  cases  of  weak  sensation,  per- 
ception is  correspondingly  uncertain.  When,  for  example,  the 
sensations  of  sound  or  light  are  weak,  the  perception  is  com- 
monly faulty  and  incomplete.  The  same  thing  is  true  of 
odors,  flavors,  aches,  etc.  When,  however,  the  sensation  be- 
comes more  intense  and  definite,  the  full  meaning  becomes 
evident.  The  direct  variation  in  the  proportion  in  question 
continues  up  to  a  point  when,  as  in  the  case  of  violent  pain, 
perception  is  either  partial  or  impossible.  We  infer  from 
these  facts  that,  ivithin  certain  limits  sensation  and  perception 
are  directly  proportionate.  This  law  of  interaction  harmonizes 
with  the  law  of  summation  of  stimuli. 

Consciousness.  (V.)  We  hardly  feel  the  ring  that  is  al- 
ways on  our  finger.  We  are  hardly  conscious  of  customary 
muscular  sensations.     The  consciousness  of  sensations  from 


LAWS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  27 

the  special  senses  varies  with  the  varying  definiteness  of  these 
sensations.  The  consciousness  of  sensations  of  heat  or  cold, 
hunger  or  thirst,  increases  from  extreme  vagueness  to  extreme 
definiteness.  There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  this  direct  propor- 
tion ;  when  sensations,  as  physical  pain,  become  extremely  in- 
tense, consciousness  breaks  down  completely.  The  inference 
follows  that,  within  certain  limits  sensation  and  conseiousness  are 
directly  proportionate.  This  law  of  interaction  also  harmonizes 
with  the  law  of  summation  of  stimuli. 

Memory.  (VI.)  Memory,  as  physiological  psychology 
teaches,  is  psychosis  by  means  of  neurosis.  In  this  inter- 
action the  body  and  mind,  as  experience  shows,  are  mutual 
elements.  In  other  words,  memory  is  affected  by  fatigue,  ill- 
ness, age,  interest,  exercise,  and  such  mental  reinforcements  as 
imagination,  judgment,  etc.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  these 
various  influences  that  enter  into  the  formation  of  memory- 
associations  determines  the  quantity  and  quality  of  memory- 
reproductions.  In  short.  The  character  of  memory-formations 
determines  the  character  of  the  7'eproductions.  This  interaction 
is  therefore  also  subject  to  the  law  of  summation  of  stimuli. 

Imagination.  (VII.)  Distress  in  the  vital  organs  pro- 
vokes dreams,  suggests  illusions,  etc.  Latent  disease  influ- 
ences our  waking  and  sleeping  world.  Physical  habits  have 
their  counterparts  in  imagination.  Mental  experiences,  and 
habits  of  thought,  give  direction  and  impulse  to  imagination. 
The  imagination  of  the  optimist  is  a  beautiful  world,  while 
that  of  the  pessimist  is  often  a  desert  or  a  hell.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  in  these  various  interactions  imagination,  like  per- 
ception and  memory,  is  subject  to  the  law  of  the  summation 
of  stimuli.  In  short.  The  trend  of  imagination  depends  upon 
physical  and  mental  suggestions. 

Abstraction.  (VIII.)  The  powers  of  imagination  defy 
description,  and  yet  this  function,  too,  has  its  absolute  limits. 
It  is  impossible  to  escape  the  ideas  of  space  and  time  in  the 


28  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

operations  of  imagmation.  So,  too,  the  ideas  of  number,  iden- 
tity, cause,  truth,  beauty,  and  right,  are  always  present,  some 
or  all  of  them,  in  the  operations  of  imagination.  Dreams,  for 
example,  abound  in  fictitious  recognitions  (identities),  units 
and  combinations  (number),  causes  and  effects.  Illusion  is 
apparent  truth,  and  as  such  conforms  with  the  conditions  of 
truth.  The  conceptions  of  Art  arise  from  the  idea  of  beauty, 
and  even  dreams  do  not  wholly  deny  conscience.  In  other 
words.  The  utmost  limits  of  abstraction  are  also  the  limits  of 
imagination.  This  interaction,  like  those  already  considered, 
is  therefore  subject  to  the  law  of  the  summation  of  stimuli. 

Identity.  (IX.)  Direct  judgment,  as  psychology  shows, 
presupposes  the  idea  of  identity,  i.e.,  the  distinction  denoted 
by  the  words  agreement  and  disagreement.  The  same  thing 
is  true  of  indirect  judgment,  or  reasoning,  as  any  one  can 
prove  for  himself.  This  idea  underlies  all  species  of  general- 
ization and  classification,  as  when  we  assert  that  a  Rose  must 
either  be  or  not  be  a  plant,  but  that  it  cannot  both  be  and  not 
be  a  plant.  The  second  premise  of  the  inductive  syllogism 
rests  entirely  on  the  belief  that  Nature  reveals  its  genera  in  its 
individuals.  This  idea  of  "  uniformity"  is  the  abstraction  of 
identity.  Even  in  aesthetic  and  moral  judgments,  where  the 
concrete  is  compared  directly  or  indirectly  with  the  abstract, 
i.e.,  the  real  with  the  ideal,  the  idea  of  identity  is  present  in 
the  same  indispensable  way.  In  logic  the  idea  in  question  is 
analyzed  into  the  axioms  of  thought.  In  short,  The  abstract 
distinction  of  identity  is  indispensable  to  direct  and  indirect 
judgment.  This  intellectual  interaction,  like  others,  therefore 
harmonizes  with  the  law  of  summation  of  stimuli. 

Total  Interaction.  (X.)  Emotion,  as  psychology  teaches, 
presupposes  ideas  or  thoughts,  as  when  we  think  of  suffering 
friends  and  desire  to  alleviate  these  sufferings.  The  ideas  of 
utility,  beauty,  truth,  and  duty,  seem  to  be  the  most  potent  to 
awaken  feeling.     Volition,  as  psychology  also  teaches,  pre- 


LAWS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY  29 

supposes  emotion,  as  when  love  prompts  deeds  of  love.  Just 
as  the  ideas  of  utility,  beauty,  etc.,  powerfully  awaken  feel- 
ing, so  the  feelings  of  utility,  beauty,  etc.,  powerfully  solicit 
volition.  Thus  ideas  and  thoughts  tend  to  become  deeds.  In 
short,  Tliinhing,  feeling,  and  willing,  form  a  natural  series 
of  mental  activity.  This  interaction  of  the  intellect,  sensi- 
bility, and  will,  constitutes  the  highest  summation  known  to 
psychology  and  life. 

Stages  of  Development.  (XI.)  The  natural  order  of 
development,  as  inquiry  tends  to  prove,  consists  of  a  series  of 
upheavals.  In  this  series  perception,  memory,  imagination, 
judgment  (including  abstraction,  generalization,  and  reason- 
ing), and  consciousness,  seem  to  be  the  intellectual  stages, 
while  emotion  and  volition  struggle  with  each  other  for 
supremacy  along  a  line  of  instinctive  upheavals  and  environ- 
mental suggestions.  The  series  in  question  is,  however,  as 
biology,  etc.,  teaches,  a  "  broken"  line  of  development.  In 
early  life,  as  Lukens,  Ricci,  and  other  scientists  teach  us, 
blind  instincts  and  individual  impulses  tend  to  substitute 
themselves  for  the  logical  order  of  adult  thinking.  Sur- 
prising and  apparently  evil  tendencies  break  the  line  of  the 
child's  progress  toward  matm-ity.  Intellectual  and  moral 
aptitudes  apparently  safe  from  relapse  suffer  "  suspended  ani- 
mation." A  period  of  physical  and  mental  "pause,"  prob- 
ably for  preparation,  as  Dr.  Ellis  shows,  precedes  the  mighty 
adolescent  upheaval,  which,  as  Dr.  Stanley  Hall  and. others 
show,  is  probably  the  great  birthday  of  maturity.  Each  new 
tendency  comes  into  the  series  of  upheavals  as  a  "  monopoly," 
and  the  "  rate  of  growth"  in  different  aptitudes  is  quite  vari- 
able, as  those  who  observe  children  cannot  help  seeing.  Amid 
these  irregularities  of  development,  however,  the  series  of 
monopolies,  or  concentrations,  in  tendencies  and  aptitudes  is 
fairly  constant,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  law.  In  short. 
The  mind  matures  by  stages. 


30  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Limits  of  Development.  (XII.)  The  most  surprising 
variations,  as  in  size  and  quality  of  skeleton,  muscles,  brains, 
etc.,  appear  in  the  physical  endowments  of  man.  The  differ- 
ences in  mental  possibilities,  as  statistics  plainly  show,  are 
even  greater.  The  genius,  for  example,  surpasses  common 
minds  just  as  much  as  the  total  possibilities  of  the  adult  ex- 
ceed those  of  the  infant.  The  difference  between  the  "  child- 
hood of  the  race"  and  its  present  maturity,  is  probably  the 
most  surprising  thing  in  science.  In  spite  of  these  variations, 
however,  the  "  specific  identity"  of  the  race  has  remained  in- 
tact for  all  epochs  of  human  history.  In  short.  The  maturing 
mind  encounters  limits  in  specifie  constitution. 


PART   II. 
PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING. 


SI 


THE  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION  33 

CHAPTER    I. 

THE   NATURE   OF   EDUCATION. 

The  general  features  of  education  are  conveniently  treated 
under  two  heads :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Man,  and  (2)  The  Nature 
of  Education. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  MAN. 

The  ends  in  view  in  education,  as  we  shall  see,  make  a 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  man  absolutely  indispensable. 
Two  points  deserve  our  special  attention  :  (1)  Man's  Capacity 
for  Improvement,  and  (2)  The  Species  of  Man's  Capacity  for 
Improvement. 

Capacity.  The  statistics  of  history,  biology,  etc.,  prove 
that  man  is  capable  of  improvement,  or  culture,  in  strength 
and  habit. 

Strength.  (1)  Systematic  labor,  normal  in  quantity  and 
quality,  promotes  physical  strength,  as  every  one  who  has 
thought  about  the  matter  knows.  The  results  of  athletic 
sports  and  physical  culture  confirm  these  views.  (2)  Per- 
sistent mental  exercise,  normal  in  quantity  and  quality, 
strengthens  the  mental  functions,  as  statistics  abundantly 
prove  in  the  case  of  sound  mmds.  And  much  can  be  done 
in  this  respect  even  for  "  defectives,"  as  the  history  of  institu- 
tions for  the  deaf,  dumb,  blind,  etc.,  shows. 

Habits.  The  things  in  which  we  exercise  ourselves  physi- 
cally or  mentally  become,  in  a  sense,  possessions,  which  are 
known  as  Habits,  from  the  Latin  word  habeo,  I  possess,  or 
have.  Thus,  for  example,  walking  and  reading,  become 
habits.  Among  the  conspicuous  features  of  "habit"  are  the 
"  ease"  and  "  speed"  with  which  we  can  by  and  by  do  things 
which  at  first  were  difficult  and  awkward.    Habits  continually 

3 


34  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

acquire  "  momentum/'  and  this  feature  in  connection  with  its 
reflex  "periodicity,"  makes  the  formation  of  habits  at  the 
same  time  the  most  hopeful  and  the  most  dangerous  possi- 
bility of  education.  The  intimate  interaction  of  sensation  and 
emotion  generally  converts  habit  into  "taste,"  or  emotional 
trend,  which  by  reflex  action  reinforces  habit.  The  conver- 
sion of  habit  into  taste  is  promoted  by  the  discovery  of  one's 
"  skill"  in  things  which  become  habit. 

Species  of  Ca-pacity.  As  indicated,  man's  capacity  for 
improvement  in  strength  and  habits  is  a  twofold  capacity, — 
that  of  body  and  that  of  mind. 

Physical  Capacity.  Within  the  limits  of  specific  constitu- 
tion, as  statistics  show,  the  human  body  is  capable  of  amazing 
increase  in  strength,  executive  ease  and  speed,  and  artistic 
skill.  The  achievements  of  athletes,  manufacturers,  and  artists, 
are  familiar  illustrations. 

Mental  Capacity.  Within  the  limits  of  specific  constitu- 
tion, as  history  shows,  our  mental  possibilities  are  sublime. 
(1)  Through  intellectual  apprehension  of  truth,  utility,  beauty, 
duty,  and  Deity,  man  becomes  a  scientist,  inventor,  artist, 
moralist,  and  religionist.  (2)  Emotion  solicits  volition  (see 
tenth  law  of  mental  activity),  and  thus  converts  theory  into 
practice.  (3)  The  possibilities  of  volition,  as  consciousness 
and  history  seem  to  affirm,  are  coordinate  with  our  intellec- 
tual possibilities.  In  the  midst  of  the  realizations  of  modern 
history,  the  mind  turns  instinctively  toward  the  attainment 
of  ideals  as  yet  only  imperfectly  realized. 

B.  THE  NATURE  OP  EDUCATION. 

The  general  character  of  the  attainment  of  our  possibilities 
is  conveniently  treated  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  Self- 
activity,  (2)  System,  (3)  Emancipation,  (4)  The  Pupil's  Limits, 
(5)  The  Ideal  in  Education,  and  (6)  The  Definition  of  Educa- 
tion. 


THE  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION  35 

Self-Activity.  Conscious  eifort  in  the  evolution  of  possi- 
bilities is  termed  Self-activity.  Self-activity  therefore  pre- 
supposes consciousness,  ideals,  i.e.,  abstract  conceptions  of  pos- 
sibilities, and  will.  Man,  as  psychology  teaches,  is  such  a  self- 
active  agent.  Man's  capacity  for  self- activity,  as  we  must 
infer  from  the  eleventh  law  of  mental  activity,  is  at  the  same 
time  both  the  guarantee  and  the  general  necessity  in  the  evo- 
lution of  his  possibilities,  i.e.,  in  his  "  education."  According 
to  the  eleventh  law  of  mental  activity,  "  play,"  i.e.,  instinctive 
activity,  and  "  work,"  i.e.,  voluntary  activity,  are  the  succes- 
sive phases  of  self-activity. 

Play.  Froebel  observed  that  play  is  the  activity  of  func- 
tions instinctively  clamoring  for  exercise,  and  that  we  cannot 
give  a  satisfactory  account  of  such  activity  unless  it  be  Nature's 
provision  for  the  earlier  development  of  the  functions  of  body 
and  soul.  The  Kindergarten  is  simply  systematic  play  from 
which  caprice  is  gradually  eliminated.  Inasmuch  as  play  is 
the  manifestation  of  aptitudes,  it  becomes  the  educational  key 
to  the  child's  talent  and  destiny. 

Work.  Absolute  abandonment  to  spontaneous  and  self- 
satisfying  activity,  i.e.,  play,  would  in  time  develop  into  mon- 
strous caprice  and  arbitrariness.  In  that  event  the  aging  in- 
dividual would  not  mature  into  the  powers,  habits,  tastes,  and 
wisdom  needed  for  highest  happiness,  character,  and  life. 
Therefore  the  child  must  gradually  overcome  his  caprices  and 
develop  the  power  of  useful  and  moral  self-subordination.  In 
this  obedience  to  imperatives  of  utility,  necessity,  or  duty,  the 
pupil  is  no  longer  a  creature  of  impulse,  but  a  conscious  and 
intentional  agent  in  his  own  destiny.  In  short,  I.  Self-activity 
is  the  basis  of  education. 

Supervision.  The  immaturity  of  the  child  (see  the  elev- 
enth law  of  mental  activity)  makes  authoritative  supervision 
over  the  pupil's  activity  an  absolute  educational  necessity. 
This  necessary  system  of  authoritative  supervision  over  pupils 


36  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

is  termed  "  Teaching."  The  teacher's  work  consists  of  three 
things  (1)  Adaptation  of  Tasks,  (2)  Stimulation,  and  (3)  Di- 
rection. 

Adaptation  of  Tasks.  (1)  In  consequence  of  the  j)upil's 
relative  weakness  (see  the  eleventh  law  of  mental  activity), 
the  pupil's  tasks  must  be  adapted  to  stages  of  development. 
The  stages  of  physical,  instinctive,  acquisitive,  and  productive 
"  monopoly,'^  must  be  respected  in  the  pupil.  (2)  The  pupil's 
tasks  must  also  be  adapted  to  some  extent  to  special  tastes  and 
talents,  since  these  are  generally  correlatives,  and  in  the  main 
constitute  the  pupil's  individuality,  God's  creative  impress, 
and  man's  inalienable  guarantee  of  success  in  something  or 
other. 

Stimulation.  In  consequence  of  tardiness  and  inhibitions  in 
the  appearance  of  aptitudes,  the  pupil  needs  a  stimulus  to  self- 
activity.  The  "concrete,"  as  statistics  show,  is  the  most 
effective  stimulus  in  earlier,  and  the  "  abstract"  in  later  years. 
Ignorance  in  these  matters  incapacitates  the  teacher. 

Direction.  In  addition  to  stimulus,  the  pupil  needs  a 
teacher's  direction.  (1)  The  ordinary  pupil  wastes  his  ener- 
gies and  loses  his  way.  In  conflict  with  difficulties,  the  pupil 
needs  suggestions,  hints,  illustrations,  questions,  etc.  (2)  In 
the  crises  along  the  broken  line  of  his  development  (see  the 
eleventh  law  of  mental  activity),  the  pupil  needs  special 
supervision,  and  sympathetic  support.  The  greatest  perils 
and  at  the  same  time  the  greatest  opportunities  belong  to  the 
Kindergarten  epoch,  to  the  period  of  pause  before  adolescence, 
and  to  the  adolescent  upheaval.  (3)  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant things  to  the  pupil's  welfare  is  effective  interaction  of 
body  and  mind.  (See  the  second  and  third  laws  of  mental 
activity.)  It  therefore  devolves  on  the  teacher  to  combine 
the  best  physical  conditions  with  the  pupil's  mental  tasks. 
Accordingly,  II.  Authoritative  supervision  is  the  necessary  sup- 
plement of  the  pupil's  self -activity. 


THE  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION  37 

Emancipation.  The  trend  of  the  child's  natural  develop- 
ment (see  the  eleventh  law  of  mental  activity)  and  practical 
necessity,  suggest  and  require  gradual  release  from  the  teacher's 
authority.  It  is  along  this  line  that  teachers  are  likely  to 
make  the  most  irreparable  mistakes. 

(1)  For  a  time  the  old  bird  feeds  and  tends  and  guards  her 
young  with  utmost  attentiveness.  By  and  by,  however,  the 
little  proteges,  being  "  fall-fledged,"  are  made  to  shift  for 
themselves,  and  their  tutelage  ends. 

(2)  So,  too,  there  comes  a  time  when  boys  and  girls  attain 
to  their  "majority,"  and  are  said  to  be  "of  age."  Until  then 
they  remain  the  proteges  of  others,  their  tutelage  being  pre- 
paratory. Thenceforward  they  are  to  shift  for  themselves, 
and,  taking  their  place  among  equals,  to  work  out  a  worthy 
destiny  in  their  own  way.  They  may,  and  will,  if  they  be 
wise,  still  value  and  even  seek  the  counsel  of  others,  but  need 
not  abide  by  it  from  necessity.  They  may,  if  they  see  fit,  sub- 
mit to  authority  from  without,  but  cannot  strictly,  as  hitherto, 
be  required  to  do  so. 

(3)  The  transition  here  described  is  the  one  toward  which 
true  education  must  tend,  and  for  which  it  must  prepare. 
Otherwise  it  fails  to  connect  "  School"  with  "  Life,"  and,  to 
that  serious  extent,  fails  in  its  function.  It  is,  however,  only 
when  boys  and  girls  can  really  be  expected  to  help  themselves 
and  to  govern  themselves  that  they  should  attain  to  freedom 
from  necessary  subjection  to  others.  Assuming  that  they  can 
help  themselves  and  govern  themselves,  the  world  thencefor- 
ward holds  them  accountable.  They  should  not  be  liberated  too 
soon,  lest  they  go  astray,  nor  too  suddenly,  lest  they  be  unable 
to  preserve  their  balance,  nor  too  late,  lest  it  be  impossible  for 
them  ever  to  stand  alone.  Their  happiness,  virtue,  and  suc- 
cess, are  at  stake.  Accordingly,  III.  Gradual  release  from 
authoritative  supervision  must  prepare  the  pupil  for  self-super' 
vision. 


38  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

Limitations.  (1)  The  oak  exists  in  smaller  proportions  in 
the  acorn,  and  is  nothing  other  than  that  for  which  provision 
had  been  made  in  the  acorn.  So,  too,  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
velop powers,  habits,  tastes,  or  wisdom,  for  which  the  Creator 
has  not  made  provision  in  the  original  constitution  of  a  man 
(eleventh  law).  (2)  Many  cannot  attain  to  those  powers, 
habits,  tastes,  and  wisdom,  for  which  provision  was  made  in 
their  original  constitution,  for  several  reasons,  (a)  their  health 
does  not  allow  it ;  (b)  their  leisure  is  limited  by  poverty,  busi- 
ness, or  some  one's  adverse  control;  and  (c)  their  environ- 
ment for  too  long  a  period  of  years  does  not  inspire  and 
prompt  to  those  efforts  which,  as  suggested  by  the  eleventh 
law  of  mental  activity,  are  essential  to  the  pupil's  progress. 
(3)  Others  cannot  attain  to  the  best  results  in  education,  be- 
cause they  become  the  proteges  of  supervisors  and  governors 
who  do  not  understand  their  function,  or,  understanding  it, 
fail  to  mind  their  business.  Accordingly,  IV.  I'he  pupil's 
limitations  should  be  removed  as  much  as  possible. 

The  Ideal  in  Education.  (1)  The  perfection  of  our  Crea- 
tor's character ;  the  immortality  of  essential  humanity ;  and 
human  capacity  for  happiness,  are  assumptions  justified  by 
reason  and  experience.  The  capacity  for  happiness,  moreover, 
is  a  persistent  endowment  of  the  human  race.  Thinking  of 
this  endowment  in  connection  with  the  perfect  character  of  our 
Maker,  we  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  that  man  is  meant  for 
ultimate  happiness.  This  destiny  of  happiness,  however,  is  con- 
ditional, i.e.,  there  must  be  adequate  preparation  for  it  in  Time. 
Accordingly,  ultimate  happiness  is  to  be  an  ideal  (purpose)  of 
humanity.     (Eleventh  and  twelfth  laws  of  mental  activity.) 

(2)  The  universal  distinction  of  right  and  wrong,  in  con- 
nection with  ability  to  will  the  right  and  wrong ;  the  promo- 
tion of  virtue  and  duty  by  Christianity;  the  responsibility  of 
human  beings  to  their  Maker  and  to  each  other ;  and  the  re- 
quirement of  virtue  for  real  happiness,  are  assumptions  justi- 


THE  NATURE  OF  EDUCATION  39 

fied  by  reason  and  experience.  These  assumptions  lead  to  the 
unavoidable  conclusion  that  man  is  meant  for  a  moral  destiny. 
Accordingly,  virtue  is  to  be  an  ideal  of  humanity.  (Elev- 
enth and  twelfth  laws  of  mental  activity.) 

(3)  Eeason  and  experience  justify  the  following  additional 
assumptions :  (a)  The  present  powers  of  man  are  such  as  to 
fit  him  for  "  complete  living"  in  Time,  i.e.,  man  is  so  con- 
stituted a  junction  of  body  and  spirit  as  to  make  "  human 
affairs"  a  possibility,  a  pleasure,  a  duty,  or  even  a  necessity ; 
(6)  the  realization  of  this  temporal  destiny  is  conditional, 
i.e.,  it  depends  on  adequate  accommodation  to  the  environ- 
ment of  this  life  as  well  as  on  efficient  use  of  this  environ- 
ment. Thinking  of  human  constitution  and  its  fitness  in  tem- 
poral environment,  we  come  to  the  unavoidable  conclusion 
that  man  is  meant  also  for  a  destiny  in  which  the  great  prob- 
lems are  those  of  livelihood,  home,  education,  government, 
and  so  forth,  i.e.,  a  temporal  destiny.  Accordingly,  "com- 
plete living"  in  Time  is  to  be  an  ideal  of  humanity.  (Elev- 
enth and  twelfth  laws  of  mental  activity.) 

Thus  it  follows  that  there  are  three  great  ends  (goals)  of 
life,  three  ideals  (purposes)  of  humanity.  But  education  is  es- 
sentially progression  toward  these  ideals  (hopes)  of  humanity. 
Accordingly,  V.  The  ultimate  objects  of  education  are  happi- 
ness, virtue,  and  "  complete  equipment^  ^  for  life. 

Definition  of  Education.  From  the  foregoing  considera- 
tions, based  almost  wholly  on  the  laws  of  mental  activity,  and 
especially  on  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  laws,  we  can  construct 
an  inductive  definition  of  education.  Thus,  VI.  The  realiza- 
tion of  man's  possibilities,  through  systematized  self-activity,  for 
complete  living,  is  termed,  Education.  The  term  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  words  e,  out,  and  duco,  I  lead,  and  thus  refers  us  to 
the  fundamental  fact  in  education,  namely,  that  exercise,  or 
self-activity,  promotes  development.  It  serves  our  pedagogic 
purposes  to  consider  the  species  of  education. 


40  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Species  of  Education.  The  number  of  man's  powers  and 
the  ends  to  be  kept  in  view  in  the  cultivation  of  these  powers, 
determine  the  possible  species  of  education. 

(1)  Physical  education  has  to  do  with  the  body,  and  aims  to 
make  it  a  fit  abode  and  instrument  of  the  spirit.  As  a  means 
to  these  ends  a  training  in  physiology  and  physical  culture  are 
indispensable. 

(2)  Intellectual  education  has  to  do  with  the  thinking  and 
knowing  powers  of  the  mind,  and  aims  to  develop  these  pow- 
ers into  fit  instruments  of  life.  As  a  means  to  this  end,  both 
general  and  special  courses  of  study  are  necessary. 

(3)  Moral  education  has  to  do  with  character-building.  As 
a  means  to  this  end  the  pupil's  will  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
ideas  of  utility,  beauty,  duty,  and  religion.  The  correspond- 
ing subordinate  species  of  moral  education  are  termed  practi- 
cal, aesthetic,,  social,  and  religious.  The  most  effective  stim- 
lus  in  moral  education  is  religion,  Avhich  consists  of  faith  in 
God,  love  to  God  and  man,  and  obedience  to  God.  All  species 
of  moral  education  begin  in  the  intellect,  and  the  correspond- 
ing emotions  thus  waked  up  solicit  the  will.  As  means  to  the 
ends  of  moral  education  the  pupil  needs  a  training  in  the  use- 
ful arts  and  sciences,  in  the  fine  arts,  and  in  personal,  social, 
and  religious  virtues. 


PEINCIPLES  OF  CULTURE  41 


CHAPTER    II. 

PRINCIPLES   OF   CULTURE. 

It  is  possible,  as  experiments  prove,  to  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  which  the  pupil  is  capable.  In  other  words,  activi- 
ties can  be  quickened,  strength  increased,  habits  and  tastes 
improved,  and  knowledge  matured.  In  this  work  the  teacher 
must  conform  with  certain  laws,  to  which,  as  history,  anthro- 
pology, and  biology  teach  us,  the  pupil's  natural  development 
is  subject.  The  general  truths  in  question  are  termed  Prin- 
ciples of  Culture. 

Exercise.  I.  Exercise  increases  the  activity  of  the  pianist's 
fingers  and  the  strength  of  the  blacksmith's  arm.  Habits  are 
formed  by  exercise  in  that  which  is  to  become  habit.  Habits 
generally  become  tastes.  Thus,  within  tlie  limits  of  design,  as 
expressed  in  our  constitution,  exercise  tends  to  promote  devel- 
opment. The  remarkable  thing  about  this  law  of  exercise  is 
its  generality,  i.e.,  its  exceptions  are  very  few  when  the  exercise 
is  normal  in  quality,  quantity,  and  time.  Nevertheless,  this 
law  of  exercise,  as  biology  teaches,  has  limitations.  Swal- 
lows kept  caged  until  after  their  usual  time  for  learning  to 
fly,  and  then  released,  fly  readily.  The  feats  are  the  devel- 
oped results  of  forces  which  "ripen  internally  at  approxi- 
mately definite  times."  Genius,  like  the  powers  of  the  swal- 
low's wings,  tends  to  ripen  somewhat  independent  of  exercise. 
The  indications  are  that  many  aptitudes  of  body  and  mind,  in- 
cluding instincts  and  appetites,  ripen  at  approximately  definite 
times  as  the  result  of  special  endowment  and  hereditary  mo- 
mentum. But  these  facts  do  not  invalidate  the  law  in  ques- 
tion, since  exercise  generally,  perhaps  always,  promotes  apti- 


42  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tudes  and  tendencies  which  appear  in  this  way.  In  short, 
exercise  promotes  development. 

Correlation.  II.  The  interactions  required  by  the  law 
of  summation,  as  stated  in  the  laws  of  mental  activity,  are 
evidently  the  primary  requirement  of  mental  exercise.  In 
short,  it  is  an  advantage  to  each  mental  faculty  to  be  exercised 
in  its  natural  connection  iviih  the  rest.  This  general  require- 
ment resolves  itself  into  the  following  special  requirements. 

Perception.  Definiteness  of  sensation,  according  to  the 
fourth  law  of  mental  activity,  is  the  primary  requirement  in 
the  development  of  perception.  Obedience  to  this  require- 
ment will  stimulate  interest  and  therefore  quicken  activity. 
The  ideal  ends  in  view,  i.e.,  activity,  reliability,  and  interest, 
are  thus  attained. 

Consciousness.  Voluntary  self-observation,  according  to 
the  fifth  law  of  mental  activity,  is  the  primary  requirement  in 
the  development  of  consciousness.  Obedience  to  this  require- 
ment will  enable  the  pupil  in  due  time  to  make  "self"  an 
"  object  of  thought,"  just  as  the  external  world  is  his  object  of 
perception.  The  ideal  ends  in  view,  i.e.,  the  power  and  habit 
of  introspection,  are  thus  developed. 

Memory.  Effective  interaction  of  body  and  mind,  accord- 
ing to  the  sixth  law  of  mental  activity,  is  the  primary  re- 
quirement in  the  cultivation  of  memory.  In  other  words,  the 
desired  quantity  and  quality  of  memory-reproductions  can  be 
secured  only  by  such  reinforcements  in  memory-associations 
as  physical  vigor,  interest  and  attention,  frequent  repetition, 
logical  suggestions,  imagination,  etc.  Obedience  to  these  re- 
quirements will  result  in  definite,  persistent,  and  suggestive 
association  tracts.  The  ideal  ends  in  view,  i.e.,  economic 
memory-associations  and  reliable  memory-reproductions,  will 
be  thus  attained. 

Imagination.  Physical  and  mental  suggestion,  according  to 
the  seventh  and  eighth  laws  of  mental  activity,  is  the  special 


phttnciples  of  culture  43 

requirement  in  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination.  In  other 
words,  sensation,  perception,  and  memory,  must  be  made  effi- 
cient furnishing  agents  in  the  structures  of  imagination,  while 
exercise  in  the  ideas  of  space,  time,  beauty,  duty,  and  truth, 
will  serve  as  mighty  stimuli.  The  understanding,  too,  should 
be  called  into  the  service  of  imagination.  Obedience  to  these 
requirements  will  strengthen  and  purify  imagination.  The 
ideal  ends  in  view,  i.e.,  service  to  art,  literature,  science,  inven- 
tion, etc.,  will  thus  be  attained. 

Thought  Generalization,  according  to  the  first  law  of 
mental  activity,  begins  in  abstraction,  but  presupposes  the 
other  modes  of  ideation,  and  implies  the  two  modes  of  thought. 
Without  "thought,"  as  psychology  teaches,  generalization 
would  be  impossible.  Ideation  and  relation,  therefore,  are 
the  complementary  requirements  in  the  development  of  these 
processes.  In  other  words,  the  cultivation  of  perception,  con- 
sciousness, memory,  imagination,  judgment,  and  reasoning, 
promote  the  development  of  abstraction  and  generalization. 
The  ideas  of  space,  time,  cause,  identity,  utility,  beauty,  duty, 
and  truth  deserve  special  attention.  Obedience  to  these  re- 
quirements will  not  only  stimulate  and  strengthen  the  mind 
in  these  higher  processes,  but  also  make  it  its  own  critic.  The 
ideal  ends  in  view,  i.e.,  activity,  ability,  and  self-reliance,  will 
thus  be  within  the  pupil's  reach. 

Sensihility.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  "  heart,"  it  is  desira- 
ble, according  to  the  fifth  general  principle  of  education,  to 
develop  right  feelings  into  motives  of  conduct,  and  to  subdue 
such  feelings  as  interfere  with  man's  happiness,  usefulness, 
and  morality.  These  ends  can  be  attained,  according  to  the 
tenth  law  of  mental  activity,  by  exercising  the  feelings  in 
junction  with  the  intellect  and  will.  In  other  words,  the 
pupil's  feelings  must  be  subordinated  to  the  ideas  of  utility, 
beauty,  duty,  and  truth.  The  pupil  must  be  made  to  see  the 
importance  of  such  discipline.     Like  Fenelon  and  Pestalozzi, 


44  PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

the  teacher  must  invent  and  utilize  all  sorts,  of  situations  in 
the  pupil's  discipline.  Even  the  physical  conditions  and  en- 
vironments of  the  pupil  must  be  utilized  in  the  cultivation  of 
his  feelings. 

Will.  Subordination  to  the  highest  interests  of  humanity, 
is  the  right  ideal  in  the  cultivation  of  the  will.  This  end 
must  be  attained,  according  to  the  tenth  law  of  mental  activity, 
by  exercising  the  will  in  junction  with  the  intellect  and  the  feel- 
ings. In  other  words,  the  ideas  of  utility,  beauty,  duty,  and 
truth,  must  be  developed  into  ideals,  the  corresponding  feel- 
ings must  become  motives  to  right  conduct,  and  the  habit  of 
pausing  long  enough  to  decide  intelligently  between  doubtful 
alternatives  must  take  the  place  of  impulse  and  caprice.  When 
evil  ideas  and  tendencies  are  present,  the  will  needs  the  mo- 
mentum of  right  habit  and  the  stimulus  of  good  example. 
The  development  of  right  intentions  is  probably  the  most 
effective  stimulus  to  the  important  habit  of  attention.  The 
physical  conditions  and  environments  of  the  pupil  must  also 
be  utilized  in  the  cultivation  of  the  will. 

Concentration.  III.  According  to  the  fifth  general  prin- 
ciple of  education,  the  best  possibilities  are  the  ends  in  view  in 
culture.  These  ends,  according  to  the  tenth  law  of  mental 
activity,  can  be  attained  in  part  at  least  by  exercising  all 
functions  in  their  natural  junction.  But,  according  to  the 
eleventh  law  of  mental  activity,  these  possibilities  cannot  all 
be  realized  at  once.  In  other  words,  each  mental  faculty  has 
its  opportune  time  for  maximum  exercise  in  connection  with  the 
rest.  It  is,  accordingly,  of  utmost  importance,  to  make  every 
pupil  a  "  special"  study,  since  the  tendencies  and  aptitudes  in 
question  do  not  ripen  exactly  in  the  same  order  and  the  same 
way  in  all  pupils. 

Limits.  IV.  According  to  the  twelfth  law  of  mental  ac- 
tivity, race  and  talent  limit  our  culture  possibilities.  The 
ideal  teacher  must   therefore   make   each  pupil  his  special 


PRINCIPLES  or  CULTURE  45 

study.  This  requirement  makes  "child  study"  the  most 
important  movement  in  the  history  of  education.  Apart 
from  such  study,  the  "  school"  will  crush  ordinary  individ- 
ualities under  a  load  of  impossible  tasks,  and  imprison  genius 
in  "  grades"  made  by  hand.  In  short,  the  pupil's  tasks  must 
be  adapted  to  his  individuality. 


46  PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

Ideas  and  thoughts  that  are  true,  are  termed  Knowledga 
Thoughts  that  are  true  of  some  individuals  of  a  genus,  or  of 
instances,  are  termed  Particular  Truths,  or  Facts,  as,  Many 
people  love  music.  Thoughts  that  are  true  of  all  the  indi- 
viduals of  a  genus,  or  of  all  instances,  are  termed  General 
Truths,  or  Principles,  as.  All  horses  are  vertebrates.  Truths 
whose  exceptions  are  few  or  unimportant,  though  not  abso- 
lutely universal,  are  also  termed  general  truths.  Ideas  and 
thoughts  (facts  and  principles)  at  which  the  mind  arrives  with- 
out system  in  process  or  product,  constitute  Common  Know- 
ledge. Facts  and  principles  at  which  the  mind  arrives  by 
observation,  induction,  and  deduction,  and  which  it  organizes 
into  a  system,  constitute  Scientific  Knowledge,  or  Science. 
The  sciences  that  begin  with  phenomena,  are  termed  Empirical, 
Sciences,  as  Botany,  Chemistry,  Psychology,  etc.  When  the  ar- 
gument begins  with  assumptions  instead  of  phenomena,  sciences 
are  termed  Rational. 

A.  SPECIES  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

The  two  species  of  "  Being"  known  to  man  are  Matter  and 
Mind.  Matter  occupies  space  and  exists  in  time.  Repetition 
in  matter  and  time,  gives  rise  to  number.  The  science  of 
space  and  number,  or,  the  science  of  quantity,  is  termed 
Mathematics.  The  presence  of  various  physical  and  vital 
forces  in  matter,  gives  rise  to  Physical  and  Biological  Sciences. 
The  physical  and  biological  sciences  are  together  termed  Nat- 
ural Sciences.  The  presence  of  mind  in  living,  organized 
beings  gives  rise  to  the  Psychological,  or  Mental  Sciences. 
The  preceding  catalogue  exhausts  all  possibilities  of  logical 
division.     Thus  it  appears  that  all  sciences  can  be  classified 


THE  NATURE    OF   KNOWLEDGE  47 

into  three  or  four  comprehensive  species :  (1)  Mathematical 
Sciences ;  (2)  Natural  Sciences ;  and  (3)  Mental  Sciences. 
The  synthesis  of  sciences  into  a  system  of  ultimate  generaliza- 
tions is  termed  Philosophy. 

Mathematics.  There  are  several  special  departments  in 
mathematics.  (1)  The  science  of  form  and  extension  is  termed 
Geometry.  Trigonometry  is  the  practical  application  of  geom- 
etry. (2)  The  science  of  numbers  is  termed  Arithmetic.  (3) 
The  general  science  of  quantity  is  termed  Algebra.  Calculus 
is  a  highly  developed  form  of  algebra. 

Natural  Sciences.  There  are  many  special  problems,  and 
therefore  many  special  departments,  in  the  study  of  physical 
Nature. 

Physical  Sciences.  The  presence  of  various  physical  forces 
gives  rise  to  the  Physical  Sciences.  (1)  The  science  of  molec- 
ular forces  is  termed  Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy.  Physics 
presupposes  mathematics.  (2)  The  science  of  atomic  forces  is 
termed  Chemistry.  Chemistry  presupposes  mathematics  and 
physics.  (3)  The  science  of  the  properties  and  formation  of 
minerals  is  termed  Mineralogy.  Mineralogy  presupposes 
mathematics,  physics,  and  chemistry.  (4)  The  science  of  the 
formation  of  the  earth  is  termed  Geology.  Geology  presup- 
poses mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and  mineralogy.  (5) 
The  science  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  termed  Astronomy. 
Astronomy  presupposes  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  etc. 

Biological  Sciences.  The  presence  of  various  life-forces  in 
organized  beings  gives  rise  to  the  Biological  sciences.  (1) 
The  science  of  plant-life  is  termed  Botany.  Botany  presup- 
poses mathematics  and  physical  sciences.  (2)  The  science  of 
animal-life  is  termed  Zoology.  Zoology  presupposes  mathe- 
matics, the  physical  sciences,  and  botany.  (3)  The  science  of 
the  physical  life  of  man  is  termed  Physiology.  Its  depart- 
ments are  very  many.  Physiology  presupposes  mathematics, 
the  physical  sciences,  botany,  and  zoology. 


48  PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Geography.  The  science  of  the  earth  as  marl's  habitat  is 
termed  Geography.  Geography  is  to  a  very  great  extent  an 
eclectic  science,  its  subjects  of  study  being  found  within  the 
domain  of  the  natural  sciences  and  history. 

Mental  Sciences.  The  presence  of  mind  in  living,  organ- 
ized beings  gives  rise  to  the  Mental  Sciences. 

Intellect.  The  intellect  is  the  subject  of  several  sciences. 
(1)  The  science  of  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  is  termed 
Psychology.  Psychology  presupposes  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  physiology,  etc.  Thus  arise  psychophysics,  pathol- 
ogy, physiological  psychology,  etc.  (2)  The  science  of  formal 
reasoning  is  termed  Logic.     Logic  presupposes  psychology,  etc. 

Feeling.  As  "truth"  is  the  end  of  intellect,  so  is  "pro- 
priety" the  heart's  chief  object.  This  relation  gives  rise  to 
Esthetics,  the  science  of  the  Beautiful.  (1)  The  science  of  de- 
lineation is  termed  Drawing.  (2)  The  science  of  constructing 
buildings  is  termed  Architecture.  (3)  The  science  of  repre- 
senting ideals  in  stone,  etc.,  is  termed  Sculpture.  (4)  The 
science  of  representation  by  means  of  form  and  color  is  termed 
Painting.  (5)  The  science  of  melody  and  harmony  is  termed 
Music.  These  sciences  generally  follow,  while  common  knowl- 
edge precedes,  the  corresponding  Arts. 

Will.  The  will  is  the  determinative  element  in  several  sci- 
ences. (1)  The  science  of  events  is  termed  History.  The  two 
departments  of  history  are  Chronology  and  the  Philoso]}hy  of 
History.  (2)  The  science  of  morality  is  termed  Ethics,  or 
Moral  Philosophy. 

Language.  Language  is  the  product  of  the  whole  mind 
rather  than  of  intellect,  feeling,  or  will.  The  mind  expresses 
its  ideas,  thoughts,  feelings,  and  volitions  by  means  of  words, 
sentences,  and  discourse.  (1)  The  history  of  words  is  termed 
Etymology.  Philology  in  a  species  of  Etymology.  (2)  The 
science  of  the  physical  structure  of  words  is  termed  Orthog- 
raphy.    Orthography  presupposes  etymology,  etc.     (3)  The 


THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE  49 

science  of  the  sentence  is  termed  Grammar.  Grammar  pre- 
supposes etymology,  orthography,  etc.  (4)  The  science  of  dis- 
course is  termed  Bhetoric.  Rhetoric  presupposes  grammar, 
logic,  etc.  (5)  The  interpretation  of  discourse  is  termed 
Beading.  (6)  The  construction  of  discourse  is  termed  Com- 
posiilon.  (7)  The  science  of  the  structure  of  alphabetic  letters 
is  termed  Penmanship. 

Theology.  The  science  of  God  is  termed  Theology.  The- 
ology is  properly  classified  as  a  mental  science,  and  presup- 
poses all  other  sciences.  The  study  of  God's  works  in  order 
to  know  God  is  termed  Natural  Theology.  The  study  of  God's 
Word  in  order  to  know  God  is  termed  Revealed  Theology.  Re- 
ligion is  theology  in  the  concrete. 

Arts.  The  physical  construction  of  knowledge  is  termed 
Art.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  arts  of  penmanship,  drawing, 
music,  painting,  architecture,  printing,  agriculture,  etc.  Those 
arts  whose  chief  end  is  Beauty  are  termed  Fine  Arts,  as  music 
and  sculpture.  Those  arts  whose  chief  end  is  Utility,  are 
termed  Useful  Arts,  as  agriculture  and  manufacturing. 

B.  THE  PSYOHOLOG-Y  OP   SOIBNOE. 

There  are  three  steps  in  the  process  of  science:  (1)  Idea- 
tion ;  (2)  Direct  Relation  of  Ideas ;  and  (3)  Syllogism. 

Ideation.  In  the  present  junction  of  body  and  mind  sen- 
sation and  consciousness  are  the  presuppositions  of  knowledge. 
The  process  of  referring  sensations  to  physical  impacts  as 
causes  is  termed  Perception.  Selective  attention  to  agreements 
between  compared  experiences  of  consciousness  follows  and 
is  termed  Abstraction.  Memory  is  always  indispensable. 
Cumulative  conception  follows  abstraction  and  is  termed  Ap- 
perception, or  Generalization.  Apperception  is  the  mind's 
appropriation  and  conception  of  the  agreements  and  common 
qualities  in  the  mass  of  its  experiences  of  individuals.  The 
resulting  concept  represents  the  mind's  conquest  of  a  subject 


50  PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

up  to  that  moment.  If  the  experiences  in  question  are  per- 
ceptions apperception  is  external ;  if  they  are  experiences  of 
consciousness  apperception  is  internal.  Apperception  is  more 
commonly  termed  Generalization,  though  the  terms  do  not 
denote  absolutely  the  same  thing.  Classificatiotij  the  group- 
ing of  individuals  on  the  ground  of  agreements,  follows  gen- 
eralization. Complete  generalization  is  the  ultimate  stage  of 
ideation.  The  perfection  of  the  process  depends  upon  the 
perfection  of  the  mind's  experiences.  Perfect  observation  is, 
therefore,  the  first  requisite  in  the  development  of  a  science. 
The  necessary  supplements  are  memory  and  imagination. 

The  Direct  Relation  of  Ideas.  Comparison  of  ideas  fol- 
lows ideation  and  is  termed  Judgment,  as,  James  is  a  pupU. 
In  this  example  the  ideas  compared  were  Jam.es  and  pujnl, 
and  the  relation  discovered  was  that  of  Identity.  The  oppo- 
site, or  negative  relation,  is  termed  Difierence.  The  process 
generally  amounts  to  the  synthesis  or  classification  of  indi- 
viduals, or  the  analysis  of  a  genus.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  judgment  have  the  same  extent,  as, 
London  is  the  capital  of  England.  The  perfection  of  judgment, 
or  the  direct  relation  of  ideas,  depends  upon  the  perfection  of 
the  ideas  compared  and  the  power  of  comparison.  Perfect  j  udg- 
ment  is  the  second  requisite  in  the  development  of  a  science. 

Syllogism.  Syllogism,  the  derivation  of  a  judgment  from 
the  relation  of  two  judgments,  follows  simple  judgment,  and 
is  the  final  process  of  science.  (1)  In  this  final  process  science 
becomes  a  system  of  introductory  and  ultimate  syllogisms. 
The  introductory  syllogism  of  science  is  inductive ;  the  ulti- 
mate syllogism  is  deductive.  The  former  process  is  a  transi- 
tion from  individuals  to  the  genus ;  the  second  is  a  passage 
from  the  genus  to  its  individuals.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
argument  amounts  only  to  Traduction,  the  quantity  of  the 
conclusion  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  original  judgment. 
(2)  The  Syllogistic  process  of  science  presupposes  certain  fun- 


THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE  51 

damental  though  inductive  judgments  termed  "Laws  of 
Thought,"  because  all  persons  without  exception  are  subject 
to  them  in  their  intellectual  operations.  (3)  The  perfection  of 
syllogism  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  perfection  of  the  prem- 
ises, the  perfect  cognition  of  their  relation,  and  perfect  obe- 
dience to  the  laws  of  thought.  Logical  perfection  is,  there- 
fore, the  third  requisite  in  the  development  of  a  science.  (For 
a  complete  description  of  the  syllogism  and  scientific  method, 
the  student  is  referred  to  some  text-book  on  Logic.) 

Specifie  SyllogistiG  Features  of  the  Sciences.  The  second  prem- 
ise of  inductions  in  Mathematics  is  much  stronger  than  that  of 
the  natural  and  mental  sciences. 

(1)  The  second  premise  in  mathematics,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions in  arithmetic,  passes  from  several  experienced  individuals 
to  the  genus,  and  leads  to  a  universal  conclusion  that  reaches 
beyond  all  possible  experience,  and  yet  the  conclusion  is  evi- 
dently valid  because  the  individuals  involved  are  absolutely 
similar  by  hypothesis.  When,  for  example,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  one  triangle  is  two  right  angles, 
the  conclusion  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  any  triangle  is  two 
right  angles  follows  irresistibly  because  the  second  premise  con- 
tains the  truth  that  the  one  triangle  is  a  sample  of  all  triangles. 

(2)  The  experienced  individuals  from  which  the  second  prem- 
ise of  natural  science  inductions  passes  to  the  genus,  are  not 
always  "  representative  individuals."  It  follows  that  the  uni- 
versal conclusions  at  which  natural  sciences  thus  arrive  may 
sometimes  be  fallacious.  The  history  of  the  natural  sciences  is 
in  great  part  a  record  of  such  conclusions.  Great  experience 
is,  therefore,  a  requisite  in  the  construction  of  a  natural  science. 

(3)  In  the  inductions  of  the  mental  sciences  the  gratuitous 
factor  is  even  more  troublesome  than  in  the  natural  sciences, 
the  totals  being  ideals  rather  than  realities,  qualities  rather 
than  quantities. 

(4)  In  the  inductions  of  Philosophy,  this  term  being  used 


62  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  the  sense  of  ultimate  generalizations^  the  gratuitous  factor 
of  the  second  premise  is  the  dominant  factor.  Encyclopedic 
knowledge  and  logical  competency  are,  therefore,  the  great 
necessities  in  the  construction  of  philosophy. 

Note.  The  lines  of  thought  just  tracked  in  the  description 
of  the  sciences  are  the  lines  of  thought  which  the  nature  of  the 
mind  requires  in  their  order,  and  they  exhaust  the  possibilities 
of  the  mind.  The  stupendous  inference  follows,  that  scientific 
conclusions  are  often  rather  probable  than  demonstrative,  i.e., 
an  appeal  to  faith  rather  than  sight. 


C.  COURSES  OP  STUDIES. 

The  correlation  of  the  sciences  (see  Species  of  Knowledge) 
and  the  mental  stages  in  the  development  of  a  science  (see 
the  Psychology  of  the  Sciences),  together  with  the  demands 
of  life,  must  obviously  determine  the  courses  of  studies  in  our 
schools. 

Correlation.  In  the  section  on  "  Species  of  Knowledge" 
the  attention  of  the  reader  was  called  to  the  interdependence 
of  the  sciences.  In  other  words,  it  is  impossible  to  develop 
any  science  without  calling  into  service  many  others.  In- 
deed, all  the  sciences  are  related  to  each  other  somewhat  like 
the  members  of  the  human  body,  so  that  all  parts  serve  all 
other  parts  and  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  the  whole. 
This  interesting  and  important  communion  of  the  species  of 
knowledge  is  termed  Correlation.  Courses  of  study  should, 
of  course,  be  so  planned  as  to  recognize  this  correlation  of 
branches. 

Concentration.  Some  branches  can  be  studied  to  advan- 
tage at  earlier  periods  in  the  pupil's  career,  and  others  at  later 
times,  and  these  branches,  as  educators  believe,  are  also  the 
best  means  of  culture  at  the  time.  Branches 'in  which  imi- 
tation  and  association   are  the  most  important  factors,   as 


THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE  53 

spelling,  pronunciation,  writing,  etc.,  should  therefore  receive 
special  attention  in  the  lower  grades,  and  those  branches  in 
which  the  discovery  of  relations  is  the  indispensable  factor,  as 
grammar,  history,  arithmetic,  etc.,  should  receive  special  atten- 
tion in  higher  grades.  The  purpose  of  such  "  concentration" 
on  some  branch  or  group  of  branches  is  obvious ;  it  is  designed 
to  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  study  while  it  catches  each  men- 
tal function  at  its  high  tide  of  possibility.  (Eleventh  law  of 
mental  activity.) 

Utility.  Although  "  correlation"  and  "  concentration"  of 
studies  should  always  be  the  dominant  ideas  in  the  con- 
struction of  courses  of  study,  the  needs  of  life  require  that 
programmes  be  somewhat  adjusted  to  meet  the  demands  of 
our  times.  If  one  end  in  view  in  education  is  equipment  for 
life,  the  necessary  means  to  this  end  must  be  introduced  into 
our  schools. 

Catalogue  of  Studies.  The  catalogue  of  studies  on  page 
55  is  designed  to  exhibit  the  "  correlation,"  "  concentration," 
and  practical  adaptability  of  studies  for  pupils  of  three  grades, 
the  grades  arising  from  the  degrees  of  complexity  in  the  studies 
proposed  for  the  respective  grades. 

Elementary  Course.  The  "Report  of  the  Committee  of 
Fifteen,"  being  in  substantial  agreement  with  our  catalogue, 
distributes  the  branches  of  the  Elementary  Course  over  eight 
years.     (See  pages  56  and  57.) 

Elementary  and  Secondary  Courses,  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  the  "  Committee"  fails  to  do  justice  to  Numbers, 
Spelling  Books,  Mental  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  and  Manual 
Training.  The  "Report  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary 
Education  in  Pennsylvania"  contains  a  programme  of  the 
Elementary  and  the  Secondary  Courses,  both  very  much  in 
harmony  with  the  present  chapter.  It  will  serve  to  point  out 
the  relation  of  these  grades,  and  is  therefore  inserted  opposite 
page  58. 


54  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Programmes.  Dr.  E.  E.  White  suggests  the  excellent  pro- 
gramme given  on  page  58  for  schools  of  three  grades.  It 
satisfies  the  requirements  of  the  present  chapter,  and  deserves 
thorough  mastery. 


THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE 


55 


Elementary  Coukse  (6-14). 

Secondary  Course  (14-22). 

University. 

Primary               Grammar 
Grades.                  Grades. 

High  School.           College. 

Reading. 

Grammar. 

General  Grammar. 

Spelling. 

Rhetoric. 

Languages. 

Writing. 

Composition. 

Philology. 

Language  Lessons. 

Literature. 

Psychology. 

Grammar. 

English  Classics. 

Logic. 

Dictionary. 

Latin. 

Theology. 

Arithmetic— 

Foreign  Languages. 

Philosophy. 

1.  Written. 

Philology. 

Etc. 

2.  Mental. 

Psychology. 

Beginners'  Algebra. 

Logic. 

Forms.    Beginners'  Geometry. 

Natural  Theology. 

Object  Lessons. 

Higher  Arithmetic. 

Special  Mathematics. 

Natural  History. 

Bookkeeping. 

Philosophy  of  Mathe- 

Physiology. 

Algebra. 

matics. 

Geography— 

Calculus. 

Etc. 

1.  Political. 

Geometry- 

2.  Physical. 

Plane,       Solid,       Spherical. 

Singing. 

Trigonometry. 

Drawing. 

Analytical  Geometry. 

Physical  Culture. 

Geography. 

Natural  Sciences. 

Manual  Training. 

Physics. 

Biography. 

Chemistry. 

Travels. 

Biology. 

History. 

Geology. 
Astronomy. 

Meteorology. 

Fine  Arts. 

Art. 

^Esthetics. 

Physical  Culture. 

Manual  Training. 

Mythology. 

History— 

U.  S,,      General,     Universal. 

Philosophy  of  History. 

Civics. 

Etc. 

Economics. 

ExPLAN.iTioN. — For  time  distribution,  see  next  page. 


56 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


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THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE 


57 


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58 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


THREE-GKADE   PROGRAMME. 


Closing 
Time 

Min- 
utes. 

Primary  (C). 

Secondary  (B). 

Advanced  (A). 

9.10 

10 

Openiag  Exercises. 

9.35 

25 

Seat  Work.* 

Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

10.00 

25 

Number  (on  slate  or 
with  objects). 

Arithmetic. 

Geography. 

10.25 

25 

Nurnber. 

Geography. 

Geography. 

10.45 

20 

Form     Work    (paper 
folding,    stick    lay- 
ing, etc.). 

Geography. 

Geography. 

10.55 

10 

Kficess. 

11.15 

20 

Silent  Reading. 

Geography. 

Grammar. 

11.35 

20 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Form    Work    (map 
drawing,     sand 
moulding,  etc.). 

Grammar. 

12.00 

25 

Excused  from  school. 

Reading. 

Grammar. 

Noon  Intermission. 

1.10 

10 

* 

* 

* 

1.30 

20 

Form  Work  (clay  mod- 
elling,paper  cutting, 
etc.). 

Reading. 

Reading. 

1.50 

20 

Silent  Reading. 

Seat  Work.* 

Reading. 

2.10 

20 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Animal   or   Plant 
Study. 

U.  S.  History  or  Physi- 
ology. 

2.40 

30 

Writing^  or  Language.^ 

Writing^  or  Language. 

JVriting"  or  Language.^ 

2.50 

10 

Recess. 

3.10 

20 

Number  (on  slate  or 
with  objects). 

Spelling. 

U.  S.  History  or  Physi- 
ology. 

3.35 

25 

Drawing,^  Singing,^  or 
Moral  Instruction.'^ 

Drawing?  Singing,"  or 
Moral  Instruction.'^ 

Drawing,^  Singing,^  or 
Moral  Instruction.'^ 

3.50 

15 

Excused  from  school. 

Spelling. 

Spelling. 

4.00 

10 

Arithmetic. 

Spelling. 

*  As  may  be  provided  for  by  the  teacher. 

Notes.— The  small  figures  at  right  indicate  the  number  of  lessons  a  week.  United 
States  History  may  be  taught  the  first  half  of  the  session,  and  Physiology  the  second 
half ;  or  each  branch  may  have  two  lessons  a  week.  On  Friday  the  last  25  minutes 
may  be  devoted  to  instruction  in  hygiene,  temperance,  physics,  natural  history,  etc. 


El-EUEN 

AUY  Gbadbs.- Pkimaby  a 

»D  GHAMMAR 

School. 

Secondary  ScHooi..-IlibH  School  or  Academy. 

1st  year 
Age,  G-7. 

al  year. 
Age,  7-8. 

3d  year. 
Age,  8-9. 

4th  year. 
Age.  9-liJ. 

5th  year. 
Age,  lU-U. 

6th  year. 
Age,  11-12. 

7th  year 
Age,  12-13. 

8th  vear. 
Age,  13-14. 

ath  year. 
Age,  14-15. 

10th  year. 
Age,  15-10. 

nth  year. 
Age,  16-17. 

12th  year. 
Age,  17  18. 

Reasons  given  for  beginning  Latin  earlier  than  is  now  the 
custom. 

5  p.  a  wk. 

5  p.  a  wk. 

5  p.  a  wk. 

Latin  to  be  begun  a  year  before  Greek. 

5  p.  a  wk. 

4  p.  tt  wk. 

4  p.  a  wk. 

Pupils     to     reproduce 
orally    stories     told 
them,  to  iuveut  sto- 
ries,   and    describe 
objects. 

Supplementary    reading    begun— and    continued 
through  all   the  grades.    Composition    beijuu— 
writing  narratives    and    descriptions — oral  and 
written  exercises  on  forms  and  the  sentence. 

From  this  grade 
no  reader  to  be 
used. 

Grammar,  3  p-  a 
wk. 

Literature,  3  p. 

a  wk. 
Composition,     2 

p.  a  wk. 

Literature,  3  p.  a 
wk.  Composi- 
tion, lip,  a  wk. 

Literature,  S  p.  a 
wk.  Composi- 
tion, 1  p.  a  wk. 
Khetoric,  1  p.  a 
wk. 

Literature,  3  p.  a 
wk.  I'oniposi- 
tioii,  1  p.  a  wk. 

Elective 
German  or 
Fi-cnch,   5 
p.  a  wk. 

Elective 
German  or 
French,    4 
p.  a  wk. 

Elective 

French,  3  p.  a 
wk.  at  least. 

Elective 

French,  3  p,  a 
wk.  at  least. 

Concrete  Geom- 
etry, 1  p.  a  wk. 

The     language 
begun   below, 
4  p.  a  wk. 

The  same  lan- 
guage, 4  p.  a  wk. 

guoge,  4  p.  a  wk. 

The  same  lan- 
guage. 4  p.  awk. 

guage,  4  p.  a  wk. 

The  same  lan- 
guage. 4  p.  a  wk. 

guage,  4  p.  a  wk. 

5.  Mathejiatks 

Arithmetic  during  first  eight  years,  with  alge- 
braic expressions  and  symbols  and  simple 
equations— no  specific  number  of  hours  be- 
ing recommended. 

Concrete 
Genmetrj', 
1  ^  a  wt. 

Concrete 
Geometry, 
1  p.  a  wk. 

Concrete  Geom- 
etrj',  1  p.  a  wk 

Algebra,  5  p.  a 
wk. 

Algebra  or  Book- 
keeping and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic.  •>% 
p.  awk.  Geom- 
etry, 21^  p.  a  wk. 

Algebra  or  Book- 
keeping and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic.  2% 
p.  a  wk.  Geom- 
etry, 2%  p.  a  wk. 

Trigonometry  and 
higher  Algebra 
for  candidates 
for  Bcientitic 
schools. 

0.  Physics,  Chemistry,  AND  AsTRONOBiY 

Study  of  natural  phenomena,  S  p.  a  wk.  through  first  eight  years  by  experiments,  including  physical  measure- 
ments and  the  recommendations  of  Conferences  7  and  9     [Committee  of  Ten] 

Elective  Astronomy,  5  p.  n  wk.    12 
wks. 

Chemistry,  fi  p,  a 
wk. 

Physics,  5  p.  a  wk. 

7.  Natitual  History 

Through  flrat  eight  years.  2  p.  a  wk..  of  not  less  than  thirty  minutes  each,  devoted  to  plants  and  nnimals ;  the 
instruction  to  be  corrolatea  with  language,  drawing,  literature,  and  geography. 

One  yr.  (which  yr.  not  si)ecified)  5  p.  a  wk.  for  hobiny  and  zoology.    Ilalf-yr. 
(late  in  course),  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene,  5  p.  a  wk. 

R    HfflTORY 

Biography  and  Mythology, 
3  p.  a  wk. 

American     His- 
tory and  Ele- 
ments of  Civil 
Government,  3 
p.  a  wk. 

Greek    and    Ro- 
man   HisUiry, 
3  p.  a  wk. 

French  History. 
3  p.  a  wk. 

English  History,  3 
p.  a  wk. 

H  p.  a  wk. 

intensively,  and 
Civil  Govern- 
ment, 3  p.  a  wk. 

Phvsical     Geog- 
raphy. 

Elective  Meteorol- 
og\-,  l-i.  this  year 
or  next. 

Elective  Geology 
or  Physiography, 
li  year. 

subject— 
eluments 
races,  rel 

he  earth, 
of  astronom 
Lgions,  and  g 

ts   environr 
y,  meteorolo 
ovcmnients 

oent    tui<i    i 
gy,  zotilogy, 

ihabitants,    including   the 
botany,  history,  commerce, 

of  the  hiKh  H'liool  course  ;  possibly 
these  where  election  is  allowed.) 

more  than  one  oi 

AbbrevU^ions :  p.  =  a  recitation  period  of  W-lo  minutes ;  wk,  =  week  ;  yr.  =  year. 

I 


PRINCIPLES  OF  KNOWLEDGE  59 

CHAPTEE    IV. 

PRINCIPLES  OF   KNOWLEDGE. 

The  laws  according  to  which  knowledge  develops  in  the 
mind,  are  termed  Principles  of  Knowledge.  These  principles 
are  ascertained  by  inquiry  into  the  constitution  of  knowledge. 

Ideas  and  Names.  (I.)  The  reader  may  not  know  the 
names  of  some  parts  of  the  pair  of  scissors  on  the  table  before 
him,  and  yet  be  quite  familiar  with  the  qualities  and  uses  of 
those  parts.  The  difficulty  of  finding  words  to  express  certain 
ideas  is  a  common  experience.  In  the  natural  course  of  things 
names  are  quite  unnecessary  in  forming  ideas,  and  are  subse- 
quently added  to  ideas  to  record  and  communicate  them.  The 
possibility  of  writing,  speaking,  and  spelling  words  before 
their  meanings  are  known,  is  only  an  apparent  exception  to 
the  law  exhibited  in  the  foregoing  description  ;  in  such  cases 
of  spelling,  etc.,  words  are  simply  so  many  sounds,  marks, 
etc.,  and  not  really  names  or  signs  or  symbols  of  ideas.  Thus 
Ave  infer  that  Ideas  precede  names  and  signs.  In  accordance 
with  this  principle  new  words  should  generally  be  introduced 
in  connection  with  the  objects,  qualities,  actions,  and  ideas  of 
which  they  are  the  names.  The  rule  should  be :  The  idea 
first,  and  then  the  name.  The  violation  of  this  simple  law  has 
many  penalties. 

Ideas  and  Truths.  (II.)  The  reader  had  arrived  at  the 
ideas  of  which  Rose  and  plant  are  the  names  before  he  formed 
the  judgment,  or  thought,  that  a  rose  is  a  plant.  This  judgment, 
indeed,  presupposes  the  formation  of  the  ideas  of  which  it  is 
composed,  and  was  impossible  prior  to  the  formation  of  such 
ideas.  All  thoughts  are  formed  in  the  same  way.  Now, 
thoughts  that  are  true  are  termed  Truths.     Thus  it  is  found 


60  PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  be  a  law  that  The  formation  of  ideas  'precedes  the  process  of 
arriving  at  trutJis.  According  to  this  principle  those  ideas 
which  must  be  presupposed  in  the  formation  of  any  judgment, 
or  thought,  should  be  developed  before  the  attempt  is  made  to 
form  the  judgment  in  question.  In  other  words,  the  rule 
should  be :  Ideas  first,  and  then  truths.  The  violation  of  this 
almost  self-evident  principle  has  brought  innumerable  woes  to 
pupils  of  arithmetic,  grammar,  geometry,  etc. 

Concrete  and  Abstract  Ideas.  (III.)  Our  first  idea  of 
such  qualities  as  redness,  hardness,  gratitude,  etc.,  came  to  us 
in  connection  with  beings  that  were  red,  hard,  grateful,  etc. 
Such  ideas  are  termed  Concrete  Ideas.  In  time  it  became 
possible  for  us  to  think  of  redness,  hardness,  gratitude,  etc., 
without  necessary  reference  to  objects,  persons,  etc.  Ideas 
which  the  mind  can  think,  and  upon  which,  for  the  time  being, 
it  can  dwell  without  necessary  reference  to  objects  of  sense, 
etc.,  are  termed  Abstract  Ideas.  The  process  of  arriving  at 
abstract  ideas  is  always  the  same.  The  law,  therefore,  is  that 
Concrete  ideas  precede  abstract  ideas.  According  to  this  prin- 
ciple abstract  ideas  presuppose  corresponding  concrete  ideas 
as  stepping  stones.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  have  approx- 
imately correct  ideas  of  qualities  that  were  never  experienced 
in  the  concrete,  provided  that  these  ideas  are  products  of  syn- 
thesis, analysis,  etc.,  of  other  experiences.  In  all  such  cases, 
however,  the  ideas  at  which  the  mind  arrives  are  likely  to  be 
vaffue  and  even  false.  The  rule  should  be  :  From  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract.  This  rule  means  that  it  is  the  instructor's 
first  duty  to  develop  concrete  ideas  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils. 
The  second  duty  is  to  transform  concrete  into  abstract  ideas. 
In  this  process  the  pupil  should  not  be  hurried  beyond  his 
capability,  nor  should  he  be  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the 
concrete.  In  the  first  case  the  result  is  always  confusion  ;  in 
the  second,  the  result  is  intellectual  shortage.  Since  general- 
ization, the  ultimate  stage  in  the  formation  of  ideas,  presup- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  KNOWLEDGE  61 

poses  abstraction,  the  principle  just  stated,  and  its  require- 
ments, are  among  the  most  important  things  in  the  problem 
of  education. 

Particular  and  General  Ideas.  (IV.)  The  whole  number 
of  individuals  which  have  the  same  nature  constitute  a  genus, 
as  birds,  horses,  etc.  Our  first  knowledge  of  oranges,  friends, 
etc.,  was  a  knowledge  of  individuals  and  not  of  the  genus.  In 
time,  because  we  knew  more  oranges,  etc.,  and  found  that  all 
individuals  resembled  each  other  in  certain  respects  (this  im- 
plies memory),  we  began  to  think  of  these  individuals  as  a 
genus.  In  other  words,  we  concluded  to  classify  all  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  nature,  however  many  there  might  be,  in 
one  class,  though  we  might  never,  as  is  generally  the  case,  per- 
sonally know  all  the  individuals.  This  cumulative  formation 
of  ideas,  first  of  individuals,  and  then  of  the  genus,  illustrates 
a  mental  law  which  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  General  ideas 
develop  from  particular  ideas.  According  to  this  principle  the 
development  of  general  ideas  requires  the  observation  of  indi- 
viduals of  the  genus  in  question,  as  birds,  apples,  etc.  This 
requirement  is  fundamental  in  the  development  of  knowledge. 
The  process  of  observation  must,  however,  be  supplemented  by 
induction,  the  means  in  generalization.  The  neglect  of  this 
second  requirement  causes  want  of  system  and  organic  unity 
of  ideas,  a  thing  very  much  to  be  deplored. 

Facts  and  Principles.  (V.)  The  reader  knew  what  was 
true  about  some  people  before  he  could  arrive  at  any  conclu- 
sion about  all  people.  In  time,  because  he  knew  more  people 
and  found  the  same  thing  true  of  each  person  (this  implies 
memory),  the  reader  concluded  that  the  same  thing,  as  mortal- 
ity, will  be  true  in  all  cases.  The  reader's  experience  illus- 
trates a  mental  law  which  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  General 
truths  (^principles)  develop  from  particular  truths  (facts).  This 
conclusion  of  experience  is  confirmed  by  the  relation  of  judgment 
and  reasoning,  the  functions  employed  in  arriving  at  facts  and 


62  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

principles  respectively.  According  to  this  principle  of  knowl- 
edge, the  necessary  stages  in  the  development  of  a  general 
truth,  as  Matter  has  weight,  are  observation  and  induction.  In 
other  words,  the  ideas  at  which  we  arrive  by  way  of  the  senses 
or  consciousness  must  be  united  by  direct  comparison  into  posi- 
tive or  negative  judgments,  as  Iron,  air,  etc.,  have  weight,  and 
then  the  thought  that  l7-07i,  air,  etc.,  have  weight,  must  be 
taken  as  true  of  all  matter,  which  amounts  to  the  conclusion 
that  All  matter  has  weight.  Put  in  the  form  of  a  syllogism 
the  argument  in  question  may  be  stated  as  follows :  Iron,  air, 
etc.,  have  weight ;  Iron,  air,  etc.,  are  representative  forms  of 
matter;  Therefore  ail  matter  has  weight.  Observation  and 
induction  are  complementary  processes  in  the  development  of 
general  truths ;  without  the  former,  the  process  of  generaliza- 
tion is  impossible  for  want  of  materials,  and  without  the  latter 
our  thoughts  could  not  be  organized  into  a  system.  Since  sys- 
tem is  the  end  in  view  in  the  development  of  knowledge,  obe- 
dience to  the  principle  in  question  is  of  fundamental  impor- 
tance to  teaching.  For  a  complete  explanation  of  this  subject 
Methods-students  must  refer  to  logic. 

Causes,  Laws,  and  Classes.  (VI.)  The  reader  will  re- 
member that  amono;  the  earliest  interests  of  his  life  was  the 
interest  in  causes,  or  powers.  The  questions  which  children 
ask  along  this  line  are  legion.  Laws,  or,  the  invariable  be- 
havior of  causes,  is  probably  the  most  common  subsequent  in- 
terest. In  other  words,  adults  as  well  as  children  do  not  only 
desire  to  know  why  a  thing  exists  in  the  form  in  which  it  does 
exist  but  also  whether  it  will  always  be  so.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, they  wish  to  know  why  the  Autumn  leaves  fall,  and  then 
whether  they  will  fall  every  Autumn.  The  desire  to  group 
individuals  on  the  ground  of  essential  resemblances  and  diifer- 
ences  generally  follows  interest  in  causes  and  laws.  It  is  true 
that  the  habit  of  grouping  objects  and  events  on  the  ground 
of  sensible  and  practical  resemblances  and  differences  may  be 


PRINCIPLES  OF  KNOWLEDGE  63 

developed  very  early  in  life,  but  such  convenient  classification 
ignores  the  essential  resemblances  of  cause  and  law.  That 
the  natural  order  of  inquiry  into  causes,  laws,  and  scientific 
classes,  is  the  one  just  presented,  is  plainly  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that  "  the  ancients  early  made  inquiries  after  the  causes  in 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy,  while  the  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain the  laws  is  of  much  more  recent  date,"  and  by  the  fact 
that  "  the  scientific  classifications  of  Natural  History  are  much 
more  recent  than  those  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy, 
etc."  Thus  we  find  that  Causes,  laws,  and  classes,  form  a 
natural  series  for  the  mind.  The  relation  of  causes,  laws,  and 
classes,  makes  the  order  just  presented  a  logical  order.  In 
other  words,  a  knowledge  of  law  (invariable  behavior  of  a 
cause)  presupposes  the  study  of  causes  under  many  and  vari- 
ous conditions,  and  this  study  requires  time.  Moreover,  scien- 
tific classes  consist  of  individuals  whose  causes  and  laws  as 
well  as  other  properties  are  the  same  in  nature,  so  that  a 
knowledge  of  causes  and  laws  is  presupposed.  For  the  com- 
plete method  of  proving  causes,  laws,  and  scientific  classes,  see 
logic. 

According  to  the  principle  just  stated,  the  study  of  causes 
should  generally  precede  that  of  laws,  and  the  study  of  scien- 
tific classes  should  come  last.  There  are  cases,  however,  where 
the  law  will  present  itself  to  the  mind  before  the  cause,  and 
the  class  before  the  laws  and  causes.  This  is  especially  true 
of  cause,  law,  and  class,  of  "  positive"  and  "  mechanical" 
cases.  It  is  generally  best  to  develop  causes  and  laws  to- 
gether, classes  being  taken  up  somewhat  later.  This  has  be- 
come the  rule,  for  example,  in  taking  up  history  and  physics 
before  biology. 

Order  of  Facts  of  Sciences.  (VII.)  All  sciences  (Psy- 
chology of  the  Sciences)  are  syllogistic  processes.  The  prem- 
ises, however,  do  not  have  the  same  sources.  (1)  In  the 
natural  sciences  and  mathematics,  observation  is  perceptive. 


64  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

whereas  it  is  introspective  in  the  mental  sciences,  i.e.,  in  those 
based  upon  consciousness.  (2)  The  abstractions  of  the  natu- 
ral sciences  and  mathematics,  i.e.,  the  ideas  of  space,  number, 
time,  equality,  etc.,  are  comparatively  near  the  concrete,  and 
therefore  readily  realized ;  but  the  abstractions  of  the  mental 
sciences,  especially  of  ethics  and  aesthetics,  are  idealities,  i.e., 
they  cannot  be  completely  realized.  (3)  Moreover,  the  ele- 
mentary thoughts  (premises)  of  the  mental  sciences,  whose 
logical  subject  is  some  experience  of  sense  or  consciousness, 
and  whose  logical  predicate  is  some  abstract  concept,  are  less 
inevitable  in  the  mental  sciences  than  in  the  natural  sciences 
and  mathematics.  Thus  we  conclude  that  The  facts  of  the 
natural  sciences  and  mathematics  precede  those  of  the  mental 
sciences.  According  to  this  principle  the  course  of  elementary 
schools  should  begin  with  object  lessons  and  numbers  together 
with  so  much  language,  art,  history,  etc.,  as  can  be  mastered 
by  the  child. 

Order  of  Principles  of  Sciences.  (VIII.)  The  great 
truths  of  mathematics  were  known  to  the  ancients.  The  nat- 
ural sciences  have  only  lately  begun  to  mature.  Some  of  tlie 
mental  sciences  are  even  now  only  in  their  infancy.  This 
order  stands  out  as  the  law  of  the  sciences,  which  may  be 
stated  as  follows  :  The  principles  of  mathematics  precede  those 
of  the  natural  and  the  mental  sciences.  The  relation  of  the 
sciences  (see  chapter  on  The  Nature  of  Knowledge)  makes  the 
order  just  stated  a  logical  necessity  :  (1)  The  natural  sciences 
cannot  be  completely  developed  without  mathematics ;  and  (2) 
The  higher  mental  sciences  presuppose  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  mathematics  and  natural  sciences.  This  conclusion  is  also 
supported  by  the  fact  that  the  second  premise  (see  Psychology 
of  the  Sciences)  of  the  mathematical  syllogism  contains  noth- 
ing gratuitous,  whereas  that  of  the  natural  and  the  mental 
sciences  does.  This  gratuitous  factor  is  most  difficult  to  deal 
with  in  the  mental  sciences.     According  to  this  principle  ot 


PEINCIPLES  OF  KNOWLEDGE  65 

knowledge  mathematics  should  be  made  fundamental  in  higher 
education.  Logic  should  follow,  for,  although  it  is  a  mental 
science,  it  is  the  indispensable  preparation  for  systematic  think- 
ing in  the  natural  sciences.  A  course  in  physics,  chemistry, 
biology,  etc.,  should  precede  systematic  inquiry  into  the  higher 
mental  sciences. 

Philosophy.  (IX.)  Master  minds  of  all  ages  have  tried 
to  arrive  at  the  ultimate  principles  of  the  physical  and  moral 
universe.  In  these  attempts  it  was  often  necessary  to  criticise 
the  methods  and  conclusions  of  the  sciences.  Critical  inquiry 
into  the  possibility,  certainty,  and  limits  of  knowledge,  was 
the  task  of  the  sceptical  Kant.  Modern  philosophy  inquires 
into  the  postulates  of  the  various  sciences  as  well  as  into  the 
principles  at  which  these  sciences  arrive.  The  truths  at  which 
the  particular  sciences  have  admittedly  arrived  are  then  syn- 
thetically summed  up  into  ultimate  principles,  the  purpose 
being  to  construct  a  system  in  which  the  phenomena  of  matter 
and  mind  are  found  to  be  the  creative  and  regulative  manifes- 
tations of  the  One  never  self-contradicting  and  First  Cause — 
God.  This  complex  syllogistic  method  is  termed  Philosophy. 
It  is  accordingly  an  abstract,  speculative  task,  and  one  which 
presupposes  cyclopedic  knowledge  together  with  great  logical 
ability.  Thus  we  conclude  that  Philosophy  presupposes  the 
sciences.  According  to  this  principle  of  knowledge,  philoso- 
phy should  come  last  in  a  course  of  studies.  In  most  cases  a 
thorough  college  course  should  constitute  the  preparatory  train- 
ing. 

Correlation  of  Sciences.  (X.)  The  study  of  any  branch 
of  knowledge  both  presupposes  and  leads  up  to  other  branches, 
so  that  it  seems  absolutely  impossible  to  isolate  any  species  of 
knowledge  from  any  other.  (See  "  Correlation.")  This  genetic 
contact  of  the  various  species  of  knowledge  is  ably  discussed 
by  Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins,  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Teaching," 
and  by  "  The  Committee  of  Fifteen."     The  great  truth  here 

5 


66  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  question  is  recognized  in  the  "  group"  system  of  studies  as 
offered  by  colleges  in  our  days.  The  "  eclectic"  courses  offered 
by  several  noted  institutions  are  also  based  upon  the  partial 
recognition  of  the  principle,  which  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 
The  various  species  of  knowledge  are  correlate. 

According  to  this  principle  the  daily  "  programme"  of  all 
grades  of  schools  should  bring  the  pupil  in  contact  with  nat- 
ural sciences,  mathematics,  and  mental  sciences.  The  prin- 
ciple of  "  correlation"  (see  Principles  of  Culture)  must,  of 
course,  determine  largely  what  the  branches  shall  be.  This 
principle  reaches  its  limits  in  the  university,  where,  after  a 
general  course,  the  student  may  wish  to  make  some  field  of 
knowledge  a  specialty  (concentration),  but  even  this  special 
course  cannot  be  pursued  to  the  best  advantage  unless  the 
student  has  passed  through  a  correlated  general  course.  The 
principle  also  finds  its  limits  in  technical  and  professional 
schools,  where  it  must  often  be  abandoned  for  practical  and 
economical  reasons. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION  67 

CHAPTER  V. 

PRINCIPLES   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

Things  done  for  the  pupil's  increase  of  knowledge,  are 
termed  Instruction,  from  the  Latin  words  i7i,  into,  and  struo, 
I  build.  The  instructor,  accordingly,  is  a  builder  of  ideas 
and  thoughts,  and  his  world  is  the  pupil's  intellect.  And  yet 
he  is  a  builder  only  in  so  far  as  he  causes  the  pupil  himself  to 
build.  (See  principle  I.,  Nature  of  Education.)  When,  in 
supervising  the  activity  of  learners,  the  teacher  becomes  the 
best  stimulus  and  guide,  he  is  the  ideal  instructor.  (See  prin- 
ciple II.,  Nature  of  Education.)  Although  instruction,  since 
its  ends  are  purely  intellectual,  is  not  coextensive  with  culture, 
whose  ends  are  emotional  and  volitional  as  well  as  intellectual, 
culture  should  nevertheless  always  be  one  result  of  instruction. 
In  this  work  of  instruction,  as  well  as  in  that  of  culture,  the 
teacher  must  conform  with  certain  laws,  to  which,  as  we  learn 
from  the  nature  of  culture  and  knowledge,  the  development  of 
ideas  and  thoughts  is  subject.  The  general  truths  in  question 
are  termed  Principles  of  Instruction. 

Adaptation  of  Lessons.  (I.)  The  pupil  who  must  over- 
work himself  again  and  again  in  learning  lessons,  as  happens 
when  promotions  are  premature,  is  in  danger  of  stunting  the 
functions  used  in  his  efforts  and  may  become  a  total  dwarf. 
The  pupil  who  tries  hard,  but  fails  again  and  again  to  master 
lessons  assigned  to  him,  is  in  danger  of  losing  faith  in  his 
powers,  or  comes  to  believe  that  his  teacher  lacks  sense  in 
assigning  lessons.  Other  bad  results  may  follow.  Thus  we 
conclude  that  the  learner  should  not  be  tried  beyond  his  present 
powers. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  pupil  who  is  not  required  to  put 


68  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

forth  vigorous  efforts  in  learning  the  lessons  assigned  to  him, 
will  soon  come  to  consider  himself  smart,  and  waste  his  leisure 
time  in  mischief,  or  else  leave  the  school  in  disgust.  It  fol- 
lows that  the  learner  should  exert  himself  up  to  his  capacity 
and  in  harmony  with  the  stage  of  his  development.  (See  chap- 
ter on  Laws  of  Mental  Activity.)  After  ascertaining  as  nearly 
as  possible  what  the  pupil  can  learn,  the  instructor  should 
assign  such  lessons  and  make  such  promotions  as  are  exactly 
suited  to  the  present  powers  of  the  learner.  In  short,  The 
matter  of  instruction  ought  to  be  adjusted  to  the  present  powers 
of  the  learner. 

In  order  to  find  out  just  what  is  to  be  expected  of  the 
learner,  inquiry  must  be  made  into  his  age,  talents,  habits, 
peculiarities,  previous  advantages,  etc.,  and  then  he  must  be 
tried  on  tentative  lessons.  If  the  pupil  is  responsive  and  suc- 
cessful when  thus  tried,  the  instructor  need  not  hesitate  to 
proceed. 

Succession  of  Lessons,  (II.)  Perception  presupposes  sen- 
sation and  consciousness,  abstraction  presupposes  perception, 
generalization  (conception)  presupposes  abstraction,  judgment 
presupposes  ideation,  syllogism  presupposes  judgment,  etc.  In 
short,  we  see  that  the  progressive  route  of  thought  begins  with 
sensation  and  ends  in  syllogism.  (See  the  Laws  of  Mental 
Activity.)  But  the  mind  also  tends  to  traverse  a  regressive 
route,  the  direct  opposite  of  the  progressive  steps.  This  regres- 
sive activity  is  necessary  to  assure  the  mind  of  the  grounds 
upon  which  its  advances  were  based  and  in  order  to  give 
greater  and  better  content  to  each  progressive  step. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  inferred  that  concrete  lessons  should 
precede  abstract  lessons,  and  that  abstract  lessons  should  be 
reinforced  when  necessary  by  reverse  reference  to  the  concrete ; 
that  wholes  should  be  decomposed,  and  parts  composed  into 
wholes;  that  particular  truths  should  be  fused  into  general 
truths,  and  that  general  truths  should  be  realized  in  particular, 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION  69 

practical  truths ;  that  judgments  should  be  gathered  into  syl- 
logisms, and  conclusions  traced  back  to  their  premises.  (See 
the  Principles  of  Knowledge.) 

The  species  of  knowledge  which  thus  correspond  to  the 
necessary  precedences  in  the  functional  activity  of  the  mind, 
and  which  precede  and  follow  one  another  by  reason  of  func- 
tional precedences,  are  said  to  be  in  logical  relation  with  each 
other.  The  logical  trend  just  noticed  indicates  the  steps  to  be 
required  of  learners.  In  short,  The  learner  is  to  be  conducted 
from  that  which  he  knows  to  that  which  is  in  logical  relation 
with  it. 

According  to  this  principle  it  is  not  proper  in  arithmetic  to 
study  percentage  before  fractions,  or  fractions  before  the  "  fun- 
damental operations."  In  geometry  the  progress  from  prob- 
lem to  problem  must  be  a  somewhat  perfect  junction  of  syl- 
logisms, each  one  paving  the  way  for  the  next  one  and 
necessitating  it.  In  any  study  some  steps  will  not  be  possi- 
ble for  the  learner  until  he  has  taken  all  the  steps  that  lead 
up  to  the  one  in  question.  So,  too,  geography  paves  the  way 
for  history,  and  arithmetic  for  algebra ;  but  geography  does 
not  pave  the  way  for  algebra,  nor  arithmetic  for  history.  In 
short,  the  various  branches  of  study,  as  well  as  the  various 
steps  of  a  branch,  should  precede  and  follow  each  other  in  the 
order  in  which  they  pave  the  way  for  each  other  in  the  under- 
standing of  the  learner.  Some  studies,  indeed,  will  not  be 
possible  for  the  learner  until  he  has  learned  those  studies 
which  lead  up  to  the  ones  in  question.  (See  the  Principles 
of  Knowledge,  especially  the  Tenth  Principle.)  Text-books, 
courses  of  study,  and  daily  instruction,  should  therefore  be 
planned  so  that  each  step  is  the  most  natural  to  take.  The 
teacher  should  ascertain  critically  just  what  the  pupil  knows, 
and  then  lead  up  to  that  knowledge  to  which  the  knowledge 
already  acquired  is  the  interpreting  key. 

Interesting  Instruction.     (HI-)  The  will  (see  tenth  law 


70  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  mental  activity)  is  subject  to  the  law  of  summation  of 
stimuli,  and,  as  may  be  observed  in  all  the  affairs  of  life,  in- 
terest is  the  most  powerful  stimulus  both  to  mental  and 
physical  activity.  An  interesting  task  is  light ;  interesting 
lines  of  thought  are  almost  irresistible.  That  lesson  is  most 
likely  to  be  studied  which  is  most  interesting  to  the  pupil. 
Indeed,  it  will  not  only  be  committed  to  memory,  but  also  de- 
veloped in  the  understanding  and  absorbed  into  the  character. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  study  a  lesson  that  is  not  interest- 
ing ;  in  the  absence  of  interest  the  will  of  the  learner  is  weak 
and  even  rebellious,  and  that,  too,  at  times,  in  spite  of  duty  or 
entreaty.  The  pupil  may  be  compelled  to  repeat  the  words 
until  he  can  recite  the  lesson,  but  that  is  mechanical  associa- 
tion, and  the  result,  except  where  such  association  is  the  essen- 
tial thing,  as  in  spelling  or  committing  extracts,  is  of  little 
value,  if  not  an  actual  injury  to  the  mind. 

Thus  we  see  the  importance  of  enlisting  the  pupil's  interest 
in  his  lessons.  The  lessons  must  therefore  be  adapted  as 
exactly  as  possible  to  the  learner's  present  powers  and  to 
the  logical  needs  of  his  present  understanding  (First  and 
Second  Principles  of  Instruction)  ;  for  apart  from  such  adapta- 
tions they  are  not  interesting  as  a  rule.  When  all  this  has 
been  done,  it  may  still  be  necessary  to  lead  the  learner  to  dis- 
cern some  distinct,  some  ultimate  worth  in  those  lessons  which, 
in  spite  of  adaptations  to  his  needs,  do  not  have  any  intrinsic 
worth  for  his  present  judgment  and  mood.  All  these  adjust- 
ments and  preparations  should  be  made  in  the  assignment  of 
lessons.  In  short.  The  possibility  of  interesting  the  learner  is  to 
be  considered  in  determining  what  instruction  to  give. 

Needs  of  the  Whole  Pupil.  (IV.)  Three  requirements 
as  to  the  matter  of  instruction  have  been  noticed  :  (1)  The  mat- 
ter of  instruction  ought  to  be  adjusted  to  the  present  powers 
of  the  pupil.  (2)  The  learner  is  to  be  conducted  from  his 
present  knowledge  to  that  which  is  in  logical  relation  with  it. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION  71 

(3)  The  possibility  of  interesting  the  pupil  is  to  be  considered 
in  determining  what  instruction  to  give.  But  the  functional 
development  of  the  pupil,  as  well  as  the  logical  junction  of  the 
lessons  to  be  learned  and  the  interest  taken  in  these  lessons, 
will  have  ulterior  consequences  of  the  most  tremendous  signifi- 
cance in  religious,  moral,  practical,  sesthetic,  and  physical  mat- 
ters. In  other  words,  the  superior  and  ultimate  prosperity  of 
the  whole  pupil  is  affected  by  the  course  of  studies  upon  which 
he  occupies  his  mind.  This  is  the  fundamental  presumption 
of  education.  Thus  we  see  the  importance  of  taking  into  ac- 
count all  the  needs  of  the  pupil  in  choosing  a  course  of  lessons 
for  him.  The  proper  questions  for  the  instructor  are  there- 
fore as  follows :  (1)  With  what  objects  are  the  senses  of  the 
pupil  to  be  occupied  ?  (2)  With  what  contents  is  the  memory 
to  be  filled  ?  (3)  Upon  what  materials  should  imagination 
operate?  (4)  From  what  mass  of  experiences  should  the 
mind  cull  its  concepts?  (5)  Within  what  domain,  practical, 
moral,  religious,  etc.,  should  the  understanding  try  to  cognize 
relations  ?  In  short,  The  needs  of  the  whole  pupil  are  to  be 
considered  in  determining  what  instruction  to  give. 

Right  Method  of  Instruction.  (V.)  It  is  one  thing  to 
settle  what  instruction  ought  to  be  given,  and  quite  another 
thing  to  settle  what  the  method  of  instruction  ought  to  be. 
But  if  it  is  true  that  the  learner  ought  to  be  conducted  from 
his  present  knowledge  to  that  which  is  in  logical  relation  with 
it  (Second  Principle  of  Instruction),  then  it  is  evident  enough 
that  the  logical  junction,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  exists 
between  that  which  is  known  and  that  which  is  to  be  learned, 
must  be  the  transition  to  be  required  of  the  learner. 

The  logical  trend  (see  the  Second  Principle  of  Instruction) 
is  from  the  whole  to  its  parts,  as  in  a  spoken  word  and  its 
sounds,  or  a  sentence  and  its  elements ;  from  the  parts  to  the 
whole,  as  in  sentence  construction  or  addition ;  from  the  con- 
crete to  the  abstract,  as  in  geography  or  arithmetic ;  from  the 


72  PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

abstract  to  the  concrete,  as  in  reading  or  algebra ;  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex,  as  in  generalization  and  classification ; 
from  the  particular  to  the  general,  as  in  learning  causes,  laws, 
conditions,  etc.,  through  observation  and  hypothesis  ;  from  the 
general  to  the  particular,  as  in  working  problems  according  to 
rule,  or  in  obedience  to  laws ;  from  practice  to  theory,  as  in 
explaining  processes,  or  justifying  courses  of  action  ;  from  the- 
ory to  practice,  as  in  the  application  of  philosophy  or  science 
to  the  tasks  of  life.  Accordingly  we  conclude  that  analysis 
and  synthesis,  induction  and  deduction,  are  the  essential  forms 
of  instruction.  It  is  deemed  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
require  the  pupils  to  take  these  steps  as  the  necessity  of  the 
case  may  dictate,  and  always  with  due  inquiry  into  the  ability 
and  interest  of  the  learner.  (See  First  and  Third  Principles 
of  Instruction.)  The  mind  developed  in  accordance  with  this 
law  will  attain  not  only  to  extensive  knowledge,  but  to  the 
highest  wisdom.  Accordingly,  The  logical  relation  of  that 
which  is  known  to  that  which  is  to  be  learned  determines  the  true 
method  of  instruction. 

Right  Mental  Activity  in  Instruction.  (VI.)  That  which 
is  required  of  pupils  in  preparing  a  lesson  and  reciting  it,  does 
not  generally  necessitate  the  employment  of  those  functions 
which  ought  to  be  employed.  (1)  Many  teachers  do  not  make 
it  necessary  for  their  pupils  to  use  their  imagination  and  under- 
standing in  studying  and  reciting  a  reading  lesson.  (2)  Too 
much  oral  spelling  is  allowed,  seeing  that  the  eye  and  hand  are 
the  better  media  of  memory  in  spelling.  Such  a  thing  as  in- 
ductive thinking  in  learning  to  spell  is  almost  unknown,  and 
yet  that  is  essential  to  highest  attainments  in  spelling.  (3) 
AVriting  is  taught  without  strong  appeal  to  the  pupil's  sense 
of  the  appropriate  and  the  beautiful.  The  will  is  seldom  re- 
quired to  put  forth  its  best  efforts  in  penmanship,  and  yet  that 
is  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  surest  road  to  success  with  the 
pen.     (4)  A  parrot-like  repetition  of  the  text  is  often  all  that 


PEINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION  73 

is  required  of  pupils  in  geography,  whereas  observation,  imag- 
ination, and  reasoning  are  of  the  highest  importance.  (5)  The 
same  folly  is  common  in  teachers  of  history  and  composition. 
(6)  Pupils  are  allowed  to  commit  grammar,  geometry,  etc., 
whereas  observation,  judgment,  and  all  the  modes  of  reasoning 
are  essential. 

The  results,  intellectual,  moral,  and  practical,  are  deplorable. 
The  teacher  that  knows  no  better,  or,  knowing  better,  fails  to 
do  better,  is  evidently  out  of  place  in  the  school-room.  In 
order  to  improve  the  functions  of  the  pupil  as  a  whole,  and 
to  instruct  him  in  the  highest  sense,  the  teacher  must  require 
of  him  that  study  and  those  tests  which  necessitate  the  most 
appropriate  and  the  most  essential  mental  activity.  In  other 
words.  The  method  of  instruction  should  necessitate  in  learners 
the  employment  of  those  mental  functions  which  ought  to  be 
employed  in  learning  that  which  is  to  be  learned. 

Culture  of  Instruction.  (VII.)  "  In  learning  anything 
there  are  two  points  to  be  considered  ;  1st,  the  advantage  we 
shall  find  from  knowing  that  subject  or  having  that  skill,  and 
2d,  the  effect  which  the  study  of  that  subject  or  practising  for 
that  skill  will  have  on  the  mind  or  body."  The  latter  consid- 
eration is  regarded  of  primary  importance  in  education.  But 
it  does  not  follow  that  a  course  of  instruction,  even  if  it  em- 
ploys the  functions  which  ought  to  be  employed,  improves 
those  functions  to  the  utmost  limit.  And  this  failure  is  due 
to  improper  employment  of  the  functions  in  question.  When, 
for  example,  the  senses  are  not  required  to  be  used  with  in- 
terest and  attention,  or  the  memory  is  only  mechanical  associa- 
tion, or  judgment  goes  unchallenged,  or  reasoning  is  deductive 
when  it  should  be  inductive  and  vice  versa,  the  results  will  of 
<;ourse  be  disappointing.  In  such  cases  the  pupil  will  not 
jain  strength,  nor  better  his  habits  and  interests,  and  his 
grandest  possibilities  may  be  destroyed  or  go  unused.  It  is 
only  when  functions  are  employed  in  accordance  with  the  laws 


74  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  psychic  activity  (see  the  chapter  on  Methods  of  Culture) 
that  they  improve  as  they  can  and  should  improve.  Accord- 
ingly, The  methods  of  instruction  should  necessitate  such  employ- 
ment of  functions  as  duly  improves  them. 

Emancipation  in  Instruction.  (VIII.)  A  time  should 
come  when  a  learner  may  be  safely  put  in  charge  of  himself, 
a  time  when  he  ought  to  take  his  own  destiny  into  his  own 
hand,  a  time  when  he  may  become  at  least  one  of  his  teachers, 
and  that  a  most  effective  one.  (See  the  Third  General  Prin- 
ciple of  Education.)  In  order  that  this  point  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil  may  be  reached,  he  must  be  required  to 
study  as  he  should  study  until  it  becomes  his  established  habit 
to  study  in  that  way,  and  until  his  interests  as  well  as  his 
power,  are  such  as  to  warrant  his  emancipation  from  an  in- 
structor's authoritative  tutelage.  In  other  words.  The  method 
of  instruction  should  tend  to  free  the  learner  from  the  necessity 
of  supervision.  But  what  are  the  habits  and  methods  and 
moods  of  study  that  should  be  cultivated  in  the  pupil  in  order 
that  he  may  attain  freedom  from  an  instructor's  authority  and 
supervision?  These  habits,  etc.,  have  been  indicated  in  the 
chapters  on  Methods  of  Culture  and  Principles  of  Instruc- 
tion. To  these  chapters  the  reader  is  expected  to  refer.  Fore- 
most among  other  things  it  should  be  required  of  learners  to 
be  observant,  earnest,  accurate,  industrious,  reflective,  and 
systematic. 

Specific  Methods  of  Instruction.  (IX.)  The  public 
schools  dare  not  forget  that  in  general  at  least  their  mission 
is  practical  as  well  as  cultural,  but  it  is  not  to  be  required 
of  them,  nor  to  any  great  extent,  of  the  colleges,  to  train 
directly  for  special  professions,  arts,  or  destinies.  The  latter 
training  is  the  professed  and  essential  mission  of  technical 
schools. 

In  technical  schools  it  is  a  duty  to  do  whatever  can  be  done 
to  fit  the  pupil  for  specific  vocations.     Accordingly,  the  course 


PRINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION  75 

of  study  and  the  methods  of  instruction,  as  well  as  those  of 
culture,  are  to  be  adapted  to  the  ends  in  view.  The  methods 
of  instruction  in  particular  ought  to  necessitate  in  learners  the 
formation  of  those  habits  and  moods  which  will  be  of  most 
service  in  specific  vocations.  In  some  vocations  the  great  need 
is  skill  in  analyzing ;  in  others  it  is  skill  in  synthesis,  or  in- 
duction, or  deduction,  or  a  number  of  these,  perhaps  all  of 
them.  In  many  occupations  the  work  is  concrete ;  in  others 
it  is  more  abstract.  In  some  arts  earnestness  or  industry  is 
most  necessary  ;  in  others,  system  or  accuracy.  Thus,  Specific 
methods  of  instruction  are  to  be  employed  in  fitting  pupils  for 
specific  vocations. 

Ideal  Instruction.  (X.)  Ideation,  as  psychology  teaches, 
begins  in  perception,  if  things,  as  plants,  birds,  etc.,  are  the 
objects  of  thought,  and  in  consciousness,  if  "  self"  is  the  object 
in  question.  In  abstraction  external  and  internal  qualities,  as 
solidity,  conscientiousness,  etc.,  become  the  objects  of  thought. 
Abstraction,  accordingly,  is  the  second  stage  of  ideation.  The 
third  and  final  stage  of  ideation  is  the  cumulative  process, 
commonly  termed  generalization,  by  which  the  mind  builds 
object-concepts,  as  vertebrates,  emotions,  etc.,  and  quality- 
concepts,  as  transparency,  intensity,  etc.  If  the  mass  of  ex- 
periences out  of  which  object-concepts  and  quality- concepts 
are  formed  is  acquired  through  perception  together  with  mem- 
ory, generalization  is  termed  external  apperception,  but  if  the 
origin  of  the  experiences  in  question  is  consciousness,  general- 
ization may  be  termed  internal  apperception.  In  this  com- 
plete process  of  ideation,  memory  preserves  and  imagination 
enlarges  experience.  Direct  comparison,  or  judgment,  is  essen- 
tial to  abstraction,  or  analytic  attention,  while  indirect  com- 
parison, or  reasoning,  although  apparently  absent  in  many 
cases,  is  always  essential  to  generalization,  or  synthetic  atten- 
tion. 

By  direct  relation,  or  judgment,  ideas  become  the  subjects 


76  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

and  predicates  of  logical  judgments,  and  judgments  containing 
"  middle"  terms  become  premises  of  syllogism,  or  indirect  re- 
lation, the  inductive  syllogism  ending  in  opinion  or  truth  that 
must  in  turn  become  the  point  of  departure  for  many  practical 
deductions,  as  rules  and  methods.  No  science  or  philosophy 
has  ever  been  developed  in  any  other  way,  nor  given  birth  to 
any  art  by  any  other  process. 

The  series  to  which  attention  has  been  called,  exhausts,  as 
psychology  shows,  the  possibilities  of  the  human  intellect.  To 
complete  the  series  should  therefore  be  the  end  in  view  in  in- 
struction. This  requirement  harmonizes  with  the  principles 
of  correlation,  concentration,  and  knowledge,  and  it  cannot  be 
inconsistent  with  the  demands  of  life,  unless  life  and  mind  be 
contradictions.  In  this  treatise  the  term  observation  will  be 
used  to  designate  ideation  in  connection  with  direct  relation  of 
ideas.  Induction  and  deduction,  according  to  the  fifth  prin- 
ciple of  knowledge,  are  the  successive  phases  of  indirect  rela- 
tion of  ideas.  Accordingly,  The  successive  requirements  of 
ideal  instruction  are  observation,  induction,  and  deduction.  This 
method  of  instruction  is  sometimes  called  "psychological," 
because  it  satisfies  mental  requirements,  and  "  scientific,"  be- 
cause the  end  in  view  is  complete  knowledge. 


PART   III. 
METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 


77 


METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTUEE  79 

CHAPTER    I. 

METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTUEE. 

In  our  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  education  and  the  princi- 
ples of  culture,  it  was  found  that  self- activity  was  the 
basis  of  education,  but  that  stimulus  and  reinforcements 
were  necessary  supplements  of  self-activity.  Ideal  methods 
of  culture  must  satisfy  these  requirements.  It  is  proposed, 
therefore,  to  point  out  in  this  chapter  the  required  means  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  intellect,  sensibility,  and  will,  and  to 
show  how  these  means  may  be  made  most  effective. 

Perception.  The  appropriate  means  in  cultivating  percep- 
tive power  and  right  perceptive  habits  are  as  follows : 

1.  There  must  be  general  and  habitual  observation.  Mental 
activity  begins  in  the  senses.  The  little  ones  are  all  ear  and 
eye  and  hand.  This  fervent  inquisitiveness  of  childhood,  alas, 
too  often  ceases  when  childhood  ceases.  There  is  too  much 
caprice  in  our  use  of  the  senses.  Most  people  see  and  hear 
only  what  they  cannot  avoid.  Education  should  lead  us  to 
look  all  around,  over  head  and  under  foot,  into  crevices, — 
everywhere  except  where  looking  would  be  sin  or  evil.  This 
is  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said  that  observation  should  be 
general.  Then,  too,  observing  should  become  a  habit  with  us, 
i.e.,  we  ought  to  make  observing  a  business  rather  than  a  mat- 
ter of  fits  and  starts.  It  is  in  this  business-way  that  the  mind 
must  get  its  necessary  stock  of  concrete  ideas. 

2.  There  must  be  frequent  and  well-planned  observation  les- 
sons. There  are  daily  opportunities  for  these  lessons,  though 
they  may  be  given  less  often,  according  to  circumstances. 
They  should  be  lessons  on  Form,  Color,  Parts,  Qualities,  and 
on  the  Elements  of  Mineralogy,  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Physi- 


80  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ology.  Some  lessons  on  Chemistry  and  Natural  Philosophy 
are  very  much  in  place.  These  lessons  should  always  be 
suited  to  the  stages  of  the  child's  development.  Moreover, 
they  should  by  all  means  be  interesting,  instructive,  and  ben- 
eficial lessons. 

3.  The  objects  studied  should  be  described  and  sketched  if  pos- 
sible. If  at  first  children  happen  to  be  timid,  they  should  be 
assisted  in  describing  and  sketching.  In  a  short  time  pupils 
will  take  courage  and  enjoy  these  exercises.  It  is  only  when 
children  are  required  to  describe  and  sketch  objects  that  exact 
and  industrious  observation  will  become  a  solid  habit. 

Memory.  In  order  to  develop  memory  in  pupils,  the 
teacher  should  observe  the  following  suggestions : 

1.  Develop  real  interest  in  that  which  is  to  be  committed. 
The  mental  excitement  denoted  by  the  term  interest  is  at  the 
same  time  a  nervous  excitement,  and  for  that  reason  results  in 
definite  neurosis.  This  explains  why  interesting  facts  are  so 
easily  retained  and  so  completely  recalled  at  pleasure.  Ac- 
cordingly, if  that  which  is  to  be  committed  happens  not  to  be 
interesting  in  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  multiplication  table 
or  spelling,  it  is  the  teacher's  business  to  put  interest  into  it, 
as  when  he  points  out  to  pupils  the  convenience  of  the  multi- 
plication table  or  the  necessity  of  orthography.  The  teacher 
will  be  able  to  make  many  uninviting  lessons  interesting, 
sometimes  through  illustration,  sometimes  by  argument  or  ex- 
planation, and  sometimes  by  personal  enthusiasm  or  moral 
influence. 

2.  Develop  true  attention.  When  the  work  to  be  done  by 
memory  is  interesting,  the  mind  becomes  attentive  of  its  own 
accord.  But  in  many  cases  pupils  must  be  required  to  com- 
mit and  reproduce  facts  that  are  far  from  being  interesting. 
Then,  too,  even  interesting  facts  do  not  adhere  to  memory 
when  they  come  in  too  great  numbers  or  too  rapidly.  In  such 
cases  voluntary  effort  must  be  put  forth  in  committing  and 


METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTUEE  81 

recalling.  The  strongest  eflfort  usually  results  in  the  most 
definite  neurosis,  and  thus  in  the  best  memory.  Accordingly, 
it  becomes  the  teacher's  business  to  cultivate  concentration  in 
his  pupils,  not  its  semblance,  but  the  very  thing  itself.  He 
can  do  this  in  various  ways,  but  especially  through  his  own 
example,  as  well  as  through  tasks  in  which  such  concentration 
is  essential. 

3.  Require  frequent  repetition.  Words  and  facts  "com- 
mitted to  memory"  do  not  by  this  committal  become  posses- 
sions or  contents  of  which  the  mind  continues  to  be  conscious 
in  an  unbroken  stream  from  the  moment  of  their  commit- 
ment, but  the  act  of  committing  affects  more  or  less  perma- 
nently the  nervous  apparatus  which  is  in  the  employ  of 
memory.  It  is  through  revival  of  these  former  neural  activi- 
ties that  the  mind  in  its  present  junction  with  the  body  must 
arrive  at  "second  editions"  of  its  former  contents,  i.e.,  at  a 
repetition  of  its  former  activities.  This  psychic  repetition  is 
either  simple  "remembrance"  or  "recollection,"  the  former 
being  a  revival  without  voluntary  effort,  the  latter  a  volun- 
tary one.  For  the  degree  of  its  success  this  mental  repe- 
tition must  obviously  depend  on  two  conditions :  (1)  How 
thoroughly  was  the  nervous  apparatus  affected  in  committing? 
and  (2)  How  securely  have  these  imprints  on  the  nervous 
apparatus  been  retained? 

Thus  it  appears  that  words  and  facts  which  are  not  to  be 
forgotten  must  be  repeated  again  and  again  with  most  faithful 
perseverance,  first  at  short  intervals  of  time,  and  then  at  longer 
intervals.  Indeed,  these  repetitions,  or  reviews,  ought  to  be 
so  frequent  as  to  result  in  neural  ownership,  or  habit,  i.e.,  a 
persistent  possession  in  the  nervous  apparatus  through  which 
alone,  in  the  present  junction  of  body  and  mind,  memory  is 
possible.  In  that  event  recollection  and  recognition  will  be 
an  easy  revival  in  consciousness  through  the  medium  of  easy 
neurosis.     Thus,  for  students  who  will  put  forth  vigorous  and 


82  PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

persevering  efforts,  it  is  possible  to  master  vocabularies,  de- 
clensions, inflections,  idioms,  extracts,  rules,  principles,  etc. 
Accordingly,  in  the  cultivation  of  memory  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  require  frequent  repetition. 

4.  Have  pupils  commit  many  extracts  of  prose  and  poetry. 
It  is  impossible  to  name  a  function  of  body  or  mind  that  does 
not  improve  through  appropriate  exercise.  It  cannot  be 
proved  that  memory  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Indeed, 
observation  and  experience  go  to  show  that  among  the  func- 
tions of  the  mind  none  is  more  capable  of  improvement 
through  exercise  than  memory.  Inasmuch,  then,  as  exercise 
is  to  be  given  to  memory,  it  is  well  for  obvious  reasons  to 
select  such  tasks  as  may  indirectly  promote  practical,  moral, 
and  sesthetic  understanding,  and  language,  as  well  as  memory. 
This  will  be  hitting  two  birds  with  one  stone.  Accordingly, 
pupils  should  be  required  to  commit  many  extracts  of  prose 
and  poetry.  These  extracts  should  be  adapted  to  the  child's 
stage  of  development — especially  to  his  understanding — and 
they  ought  to  be  such  as  will  serve  not  only  to  fix  linguistic 
moulds  for  the  child,  but  also  true  views  of  life  and  destiny  . 

5.  Help  the  child  find  the  best  cohesions  in  committing.  It  is 
of  the  highest  importance  to  understand  that  which  is  to  be 
committed.  In  that  case  words  and  facts  will  cohere  more 
effectually  in  consciousness,  and  their  imprints  in  the  nervous 
apparatus  will  be  more  directly  connected  and  hence  more 
readily  restored.  Moreover,  through  the  interest  and  atten- 
tion that  usually  attach  to  what  the  mind  understands,  the 
nervous  imprints  will  be  more  definite  and  therefore  more  en- 
during. Therefore,  the  cohesions  in  committing  should  be  evi- 
dent, and  natural,  i.e.,  not  forced ;  and  logical,  i.e.,  connected 
as  cause  and  effect.  In  addition  to  this,  the  mind  should  be 
in  a  responsive  mood  and  the  body  ready  for  service  to  the 
mind.  Thus  appears  the  propriety  of  studying  certain  lessons, 
with  a  mind  that  is  free  from  preoccupation  or  worry,  and  at 


METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTURE  83 

those  times  of  the  day  when  the  ner\  ous  system  is  more  vigor- 
ous. In  other  words,  the  best  cohesions  in  committing  result 
from  the  completest  obedience  to  the  "  laws  of  association." 
(See  text-book  on  Psychology.) 

Imagination.  The  importance  of  cultivating  imagination 
until  it  becomes  what  it  ought  to  be  in  quantity,  propensity, 
and  quality,  is  too  often  forgotten  by  teachers.  In  this  work 
it  is  well  for  teacher  and  pupil  to  heed  the  following  sugges- 
tions : 

1.  Observe  that  which  is  lovely  and  inspiring  everywhere  in 
Nature.  Sensation  stimulates  imagination;  it  is  an  indis- 
pensable stimulation ;  its  quantity  and  quality  have  much  to 
do  with  the  quantity  and  quality  of  imagination.  Thus  arises 
the  importance  of  choosing  our  sensations,  if  we  would  improve 
our  imagination.  In  most  people  there  is  enough  imagina- 
tion, but  so  often  it  is  of  a  poor  quality.  This  ought  to  be 
remedied.  Accordingly,  it  is  imperative  to  observe  the  lovely 
and  inspiring  everywhere  in  Nature.  Those  who  hope  to  live 
in  a  world  of  their  own  construction,  sublime  and  beautiful, 
must  be  much  in  contact  with  the  sights  and  forms  and  sounds 
of  the  world  which  God  has  made.  In  other  words,  it  ought 
to  be  a  habit  of  ours  to  seek  the  quiet  valley  and  the  murmur- 
ing stream,  sweet  birds  and  flowers,  starlight  and  the  azure 
sky.  And  again  we  ought  to  know  majestic  mountains,  mighty 
rivers,  foaming  cataracts,  the  storm,  the  sea. 

2.  Observe  that  which  is  lovely  and  inspiring  in  Art.  The 
works  of  Art,  though  far  inferior  to  the  works  of  God,  are 
very  lovely  and  inspiring.  Architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
music,  poetry,  and  fiction,  have  created  for  the  eye  and  the  ear 
and  the  hand  what  these  need  in  order  to  stimulate  imagina- 
tion. Those  who  would  expand  their  little  world  beyond  its 
narrow  real  limits  may  do  so  in  the  presence  of  majestic  tem- 
ples, graceful  statuary,  the  paintings  of  the  Masters,  tender  or 
majestic  music,  poetry,  and  fiction.     The  figures  of  the  poet. 


84  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  characters  and  events  of  fiction,  etc.,  all  tend  to  stimulate 
and  refine  imagination  in  those  who  read  and  see  and  hear. 

3.  Enrich  the  mind  with  lovely  and  inspiring  memories  of 
Nature  and  Art.  The  same  nervous  apparatus  is  active  in 
sensations  and  their  reproduction,  i.e.,  the  neural  process  of 
memory  is  simply  a  reproduction — however  faint  it  be — of 
past  sensations.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that,  if  sensations 
stimulate  imagination,  their  reproduction  in  memory  will  do 
so  too.  Indeed,  the  psychic  phase  of  memory  (the  "  second 
editions"  proper)  is  itself  a  species  of  reproductive  imagina- 
tion. From  this  reproductive  phase  of  imagination  to  its  pro- 
ductive phase  the  transition  is  spontaneous.  Thus  arises  the 
great  importance  of  stimulating  and  purifying  and  ennobling 
imagination  through  restoring  "  memories"  of  those  things 
which  are  lovely  and  inspiring  in  Nature  and  Art.  This 
habit  of  recalling  what  was  seen  and  heard  in  field  and  forest, 
among  birds  and  flowers,  as  well  as  in  galleries  of  Art,  or  in 
books,  is  not  only  a  delightful  habit,  but  one  that  tends  to  de- 
velop imagination  into  an  inner  world  of  beauty  and  sublimity, 
loveliness  and  splendor,  grace  and  majesty. 

4.  Make  associates  of  imagination  and  thought.  In  many 
branches  of  study  it  is  possible  to  employ  the  imagination  in 
helpful  connection  (see  the  Second  Principle  of  Culture)  with 
"  thought."  This  is  especially  the  case  with  geography,  his- 
tory, geometry,  physical  science,  and  literature.  In  all  these 
connections  thought  becomes  the  reinforcement  of  imagination. 

Thought.  According  to  the  first  principle  of  culture,  the 
fundamental  thing  in  the  cultivation  of  "  thought,"  is  practice 
in  judging  and  reasoning.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  thought, 
the  concrete  and  particular  are  the  most  effective  stimulus;  in 
the  later  stages  the  abstract  and  general  should  be  gradually 
substituted.  In  these  transitions  the  teacher  must  be  guided 
by  the  measure  of  the  pupil's  interest  and  ability.  Inductive 
and  deductive  thought  should  generally  be  correlated.     The 


METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTUEE  85 

cultivation  of  thought  need  not  be  deferred,  as  Rousseau 
seemed  to  think,  to  the  grammar  school  period,  but  should 
begin,  as  psychology  teaches,  in  the  lower  grades.  The  com- 
mon school  branches  are  the  teacher's  convenient  means  not 
only  in  lower,  but  also  in  higher  grades.  History,  geography, 
grammar,  and  arithmetic,  are  best  suited  to  the  grammar  school 
age.  Physical  geography,  geometry,  and  algebra,  together  with 
botany  and  natural  philosophy,  are  suitable  for  high  school 
pupils.  General  history,  psychology,  and  the  classics,  are  use- 
ful means  in  Normal  schools  and  colleges. 

Sensibility.  The  following  suggestions  will  be  found  good 
rules  in  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings.  These  rules,  inferred 
from  psychology,  are  based  upon  the  relation  of  the  feelings 
to  intellect  and  will. 

1.  Surround  the  pupil  loith  ennobling  influences.  The  heart 
is  a  harp  of  a  thousand  strings ;  it  vibrates  with  the  slightest 
touch ;  it  moves  in  response  to  all  that  comes  to  it  through 
intellect  and  sense.  Thus  .it  becomes  possible  to  cultivate  the 
feelings  by  means  of  books,  pictures,  companions.  Nature, 
Art,  etc.  The  teacher  should  never  grow  weary  in  trying  to 
surround  his  pupils  with  such  influences,  physical  and  spirit- 
ual, as  will  tend  to  ennoble  the  emotions,  affections,  desires, 
hopes,  etc.,  of  his  pupils. 

2.  Resort  to  moral,  sesthetic,  and  spiritual  precepts.  Improper 
thoughts  generate  improper  feelings,  and  proper  thoughts,  to 
say  the  least,  tend  toward  the  opposite  result,  i.e.,  proper  feel- 
ings. Thus  it  follows  that  the  "heart"  is  to  be  cultivated 
through  the  "head."  Accordingly,  it  is  possible  to  improve 
the  feelings  through  those  precepts  which  improve  Conscience 
(moral  precepts),  through  those  which  improve  Taste  (sesthetic 
precepts),  and  through  those  which  lift  the  thoughts  toward 
God,  or  the  things  of  God  (spiritual  precepts).  These  lessons 
may  be  formal,  as  in  set  talks,  or  informal,  as  in  the  study  of 
biography,  art,  and  Holy  Writ. 


86  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

3.  Set  the  pupil  worthy  examples.  Direct  contact  with  a 
noble-hearted  teacher  is  worth  more  to  the  feelings  of  pupils 
than  all  precepts  put  together.  Pupils,  so  to  say,  absorb  the 
feelings  of  the  teacher,  and  drift  into  his  current.  It  must 
therefore  be  important  that  the  teacher  cultivate  propriety  and 
vigor  of  feeling  in  himself,  not  only  for  his  own  sake,  but  also 
for  absorption  by  his  pupils.  The  study  of  appropriate  biog- 
raphy will  have  a  similar  effect.  "  Boys  Who  Became  Great 
Men,"  is  a  most  excellent  book  for  this  purpose.  The  teacher 
should  also  see  to  it,  whenever  possible,  that  none  of  his  pupils 
are  spoiled  by  evil  examples  in  school-mates. 

4.  Require  the  pupil  to  master  his  evil  impulses.  To  master 
one's  feelings  absolutely,  is  simply  impossible;  and  yet  it  is 
quite  possible  to  concentrate  one's  thoughts  more  or  less  on 
worthy  objects,  thus  breaking  the  tyrannous  sway  of  one's  im- 
pulses. Pupils  should  be  incited  in  every  possible  way  to 
think  of  duty,  justice,  mercy,  truth,  etc.,  and  to  dislodge  all 
feelings  that  are  out  of  harmony  with  better  sense  or  sober 
reason.  The  boy  that  will  make  honest  efforts  to  obey  these 
higher  ideas  will  in  time  develop  in  himself  the  power  to 
subordinate  his  impulses  to  reason,  and  the  power  to  master 
himself  in  most  trying  situations. 

Will.  Apart  from  intelligent  vigor  of  will,  the  mind  can- 
not develop  adequately  nor  do  its  work  in  the  world.  (See 
"Nature  of  Education.")  The  following  suggestions,  based 
on  the  relation  of  will  to  intellect  and  emotion  ("  Total  Inter- 
action," page  28),  are  good  rules  in  the  cultivation  of  will. 

1.  Develop  noble  conceptions  and  emotions.  It  is  the  nature 
of  the  mind  not  to  will  except  when  there  are  motives,  or 
stimuli.  These  stimuli  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  intellectual 
and  emotional.  In  other  words,  noble  ideas  and  the  feelings 
arising  from  these  ideas,  tend  to  ennoble  the  will,  but  ignoble 
ideas  and  the  feelings  arising  from  these  ideas,  tend  to  vitiate 
the  will.     The  most  effective  motives,  as  we  know  by  inquiry 


METHODS  OF  MENTAL  CULTURE  87 

into  human  "  interests/'  are  the  ideas  of  utility,  truth,  beauty, 
and  duty.  These  ideas  should,  therefore,  be  developed  into 
intentions,  or  ideals,  in  the  character  of  pupils.  The  "  love" 
through  which  the  ideas  in  question  become  ideals,  is  the  strong- 
est stimulus  in  life.  (1)  To  accomplish  these  ends,  the  teacher 
should  find  or  create  concrete  situations  for  his  pupils,  and  then 
add  such  instruction  as  may  serve  his  purposes.  This  was  the 
method  of  Pestalozzi  and  Fenelon.  Older  pupils  should  study 
economics,  physical  and  mathematical  science,  aesthetics,  and 
ethics.  (2)  The  motives,  career,  and  destiny  of  historical  per- 
sons, should  be  studied  in  the  light  of  mental  sciences.  Older 
students  should  also  study  comedy  and  tragedy ;  for  thus  they 
will  build  up  for  themselves  types  of  character  with  which 
they  may  compare  themselves,  and  thus  take  warning  from 
the  fate  of  others.  (3)  When  instruction  fails,  as  in  "  The 
Evolution  of  Dodd,"  penalties  must  be  inflicted  ;  for  these 
will  often  impress  lessons  otherwise  despised  and  disobeyed. 
This  is  a  special  sphere  of  school  management. 

2.  Require  vigorous  activity  in  all  tasks.  Attention  and  in- 
tention, as  was  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  mental  activity, 
are  the  characteristic  phases  of  volition,  or  decision.  Punctual 
and  regular  attention  together  constitute  industry.  Persistent 
attention  is  known  as  perseverance.  When  any  one  is  master 
of  himself,  as  in  trying  circumstances  or  amid  adverse  forces, 
the  voluntary  self-mastery  is  termed  Self-Control.  Purpose 
and  resolution  are  strong  intentions. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  these  forms  of  self-determina- 
tion, the  invariable  element  is  effort,  assertion,  vigor.  In  short, 
vigor  is  the  one  thing  to  be  cultivated  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
will.  It  should  therefore  be  required  of  pupils  to  be  attentive, 
industrious,  persevering,  and  self-possessed.  The  ordinary 
duties  of  study  and  exercise,  as  found  in  the  present  curricu- 
lum of  schools,  aiford  ample  opportunity  for  the  cultivation 
of  will  in  pupils.     The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  pupils  try 


88  PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  master  }:)ractical  difficulties,  overcome  obstacles,  and  put 
forth  intelligent,  courageous  effort  in  all  tasks.  Gymnastic 
exercises  are  especially  valuable  in  cultivating  attention, 
decision,  courage,  perseverance,  and  self-control. 

In  the  getting  of  an  education  attention  is  nearly  every- 
thing. The  same  holds  true  of  success  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  life.  It  is  therefore  of  the  very  greatest  importance 
to  cultivate  attention  in  our  pupils. 

The  following  suggestions  will  aid  the  teacher  in  cultivating 
attention  in  pupils : 

1.  The  teacher  must  show  in  his  face  and  voice  and  manners 
that  he  is  himself  interested  in  the  subject  under  consideration. 
The  effect  will  be  electric. 

2.  The  teacher  must  use  the  best  methods  of  instruction  and 
the  greatest  possible  skill  in  speech.  Professional  training  is 
simply  indispensable. 

3.  The  teacher  must  assign  such  tasks  in  recitation  and  out 
of  recitation  as  will  require  close  observation  and  vigorous 
thinking. 

4.  The  teacher  must  study  every  pupil  in  particular,  in 
order  to  win  and  hold  his  attention. 


OBJECT  LESSONS  89 

CHAPTER    11. 

OBJECT   LESSONS. 

A  COERECT  conception  of  object  lessons  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  determining  right  methods  of  instruction.  (See 
the  Principles  of  Instruction.)  Two  problems,  therefore,  de- 
serve our  attention  in  this  chapter :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Object 
Lessons;  and  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Object 
Lessons. 

,THB  NATURE  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

What  object  lessons  really  are,  is  most  conveniently  set 
forth  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  The  Subjects  of  Study  ; 
(2)  The  Ends  in  View ;  (3)  The  Method  of  Study ;  and  (4) 
The  History  of  Object  Lessons. 

The  Subjects  of  Study.  "  Object  Lessons,"  as  indicated 
by  the  name,  are  lessons  on  objects.  But,  to  avoid  misconcep- 
tions, it  must  be  added  that  object  lessons  are  concerned  only 
with  sensible  objects.  Any  object  of  the  pupil's  environment 
may  be  studied.  The  object  may  be  a  product  of  Nature  or 
manufacture.  Object  lessons  in  which  the  things  with  which 
the  physical  sciences  are  concerned,  are  the  subjects  of  study, 
have  been  most  appropriately  termed  "  Nature  Studies." 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Object  Lessons.  The  ends  in 
view,  as  in  all  studies  which  deserve  a  place  in  our  schools, 
are  two,  namely,  (1)  Culture  and  (2)  Instruction. 

Culture  in  Object  Lessons.  Object  lessons  are  designed  to 
exercise  the  pupil's  mind  in  such  a  way  as  to  utilize  and  im- 
prove all  its  fimctions,  but  especially  the  perceptive  function 
in  connection  with  memory,  judgment,  and  attention.  The 
propriety  of  object  lessons  as  a  means  of  culture  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  importance  of  object  lessons. 


90  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Instruction  in  Object  Lessons.  Object  lessons  are  also  de- 
signed to  equip  pupils  with  such  knowledge  of  their  environ- 
ment as  will  serve  the  practical,  moral,  and  aesthetic  ends  of 
life.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  end  the  forms,  colors,  parts, 
qualities,  powers,  etc.,  of  objects  are  made  special  subjects  of 
study.  The  propriety  of  object  lessons  as  a  means  of  in- 
struction will  be  considered  under  the  importance  of  object 
lessons. 

The  Method  of  Study.  In  the  study  of  objects  the  whole 
pupil  can  be  at  work,  but  all  the  activities  into  which  he  enters 
must  begin  in  the  senses.  This  is  the  characteristic  feature  of 
the  study  of  objects.  Conceptive  and  reflective  attention  must, 
however,  be  added  to  perceptive  attention  as  necessary  com- 
plements and  reinforcements.  (See  Rosenkranz.)  In  the 
case  of  younger  pupils,  the  study  of  objects  may  amount 
only  to  observation,  i.e.,  to  inquiry  into  facts,  but  older  pupils 
will  seek  after  the  general  truths  of  phenomena  and  make 
these  truths  rules  of  conduct,  i.e.,  they  will  study  not  only 
by  observation,  but  also  by  induction  and  deduction.  The 
experiments  of  the  physical  sciences  are  object  lessons  in  this 
higher  sense. 

The  History  of  Object  Lessons.  Perhaps  there  never 
was  a  time  in  the  history  of  education  when  object  lessons 
were  not  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of  primary  instruction. 
In  practice  teachers  have  differed  considerably.  Some  teach- 
ers introduced  such  instruction  as  adjuncts  of  various  studies. 
Although  Locke,  Comenius,  and  others,  advocated  object  les- 
sons, the  credit  of  introducing  them  as  a  distinct  method  of 
elementary  instruction  is  usually  given  to  Pestalozzi.  In  our 
days  the  systems  introduced  by  educators  of  former  centuries 
have  been  expanded  and  perfected.  Modern  education  lays 
great  stress  on  "  Nature  Studies,"  and  correlates  these  with 
literature.  The  Normal  schools  provide  special  courses  of 
training  in  object  lessons,  and  many  writers  outline  systematic 


OBJECT  LESSONS  91 

courses  of  work  for  our  schools.  Among  other  suggestive  au- 
thors are  Sheldon,  Calkins,  Prince,  Walker,  and  Ricks.  The 
probabilities  are  that  object  lessons,  though  sometimes  em- 
ployed amiss,  have  come  to  stay  in  our  schools.  (See  Impor- 
tance of  Object  Lessons.) 

INSTRUCTION  IN  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

The  following  topics  deserve  the  teacher's  attention  at 
this  point:  (1)  The  Courses  of  Object  Lessons;  (2)  The 
Method  of  Instruction  ;  and  (3)  The  Importance  of  Object 
Lessons. 

COURSES  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

Lessons  on  objects  should  begin  when  the  child  enters 
school ;  they  should  continue  through  all  the  years  of  school, 
the  most  interesting  objects  and  the  simplest  phases  coming 
up  for  study  at  first,  the  harder  object  coming  later  and  the 
method  developing  into  complete  experiment.  (See  first  three 
principles  of  instruction.)  In  order  to  systematize  object  les- 
sons, the  schools  should  offer  courses  in  Form,  Color,  Parts, 
Qualities,  Facts,  etc. 

I.    FOEM. 

Three  things  deserve  our  present  attention :  (1)  Embodi- 
ments of  Forms ;  (2)  The  Method  of  Teaching  Forms ;  and 
(3)  The  Importance  of  Teaching  Forms. 

The  Embodiment  of  Forms.  The  objects  of  the  child's 
environment  are  embodiments  of  elementary  forms  into  which 
(see  chapter  on  Drawing)  these  objects  can  be  analyzed. 
Every  school-room  should  be  supplied  with  a  box  of  geomet- 
rical forms  and  such  objects  as  resemble  these  forms.  If  the 
teacher  cannot  construct  the  geometrical  forms,  he  can  proba- 
bly induce  his  directors  to  pay  for  the  necessary  supply.  The 
Milton  Bradley  Company,  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  is  ready 
to  supply  all  the  special  materials  for  object  lessons.     Supple- 


92 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


mentary  objects  should  be  collected  by  the  pupils  under  the 
teacher's  supervision. 

Elementary  Forms.  The  following  catalogue  of  forms  will 
serve  as  an  outline  of  the  course  of  lessons  on  Form.  Pupils 
should  know  these  forms  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 


Elements  of  Form. 

Lines.                         Angles. 

Polygons. 

1.  Lines. 

1.  Straight.                   1.  Right. 

1.  Triangles. 

2.  Angles. 

2.  Curved.                    2.  Acute. 

2.  Quadrilaterals. 

3.  Surfaces. 

3.  Broken.                   3.  Obtuse. 

3.  Pentagons. 

4.  Volumes. 

4.  Parallel. 

4.  Hexagons. 

5.  Oblique. 

5.  Heptagons. 

6.  Octagons. 

7.  Nonagons. 

8.  Decagons. 

Triangles. 

Quadrilaterals.           Circle. 

Circular  Forms. 

1.  Angles. 

1.  Parallelograms.        1.  Circumference. 

1.  Oval. 

(1)  Right. 

(1)  Square.                2.  Diameter. 

2.  Ellipse. 

(2)  Obtuse. 

(2)  Rectangle.            3.  Radius. 

3.  Ring. 

(3)  Acute. 

(3)  Rhombus.             4.  Arc. 

4.  Crescent, 

2.  Sides. 

(4)  Rhomboid.           5.  Chord. 

(1)  Equilateral. 

2.  Trapezoid.                6.  Segment. 

(2)  Isosceles. 

3.  Trapezium.               7.  Sector. 

(3)  Scalene. 

8.  Tangent. 

9.  Secant. 

10.  Quadrant. 

11.  Semi-circle. 

12.  Semi-circumfer- 

ence. 

Polyhedrons. 

Round  Bodies. 

Conic  Sections. 

1.  Prism. 

1.  Cyliuder. 

1.  Ellipse. 

(1)  Cuhe. 

2.  Cone. 

2.  Parabola. 

(2)  Parallelopipedon.                    3.  Frustum  of  Cone. 

3.  Hyperbola. 

(3)  Triangular  prism,  etc.             4.  Sphere. 

2.  Pyramid. 

5.  Hemisphere. 

Complex  Forms. 

3.  Frustum  of  Pyramid.                  6.  Ovoid. 

1.  Catenary. 

4.  Plinth. 

7.  Ellipsoid. 

2.  Spirals. 

8.  Circular  Plmth. 

3.  Cycloid. 

The  Method  of  Teaching  Forms.  (1)  The  first  thing  to 
do  in  teaching  a  form,  is  to  require  the  pupil  to  observe  it.  It 
is  not  enough  to  show  the  pupil  one  example ;  others  must  be 
added  to  stimulate  comparison,  thus  prompting  abstraction 
and  conception.  (2)  Since  the  names  of  forms  cannot  be  dis- 
covered by  the  pupil's  unaided  effort,  these  must  be  given  by 


OBJECT  LESSONS  93 

the  teacher,  but  always  in  strictest  association  with  the  form 
itself.  (3)  The  teacher  should  draw  the  form  in  question  or 
construct  it,  and  require  the  pupils  to  do  so.  This  require- 
ment will  be  an  incentive  to  close  observation,  and  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  pupil's  inductive  description,  or  definition,  of  the 
form  under  consideration.  (4)  The  pupil  should  be  required 
to  define,  i.e.,  to  describe  the  form  observed,  named,  pictured, 
and  made.  This  requirement  will  stimulate  the  closest  atten- 
tion, and  develop  the  power  to  express  actual  knowledge.  (5) 
The  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  discover  as  many  occur- 
rences of  the  studied  form  as  can  be  found  in  his  environ- 
ment. This  requirement  will  make  the  pupil  a  deductive 
thinker,  and  lead  him  to  use  his  knowledge  of  form  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  his  surroundings.  (6)  The  teacher  should  lead 
the  pupils  to  see  why  one  form  rather  than  others  is  used  in 
practical  life.  This  will  make  the  pupil  a  thinker,  and  teach 
him  to  help  himself  in  many  practical  difficulties.  The  sesthetio 
powers  of  forms  should  also  be  taught. 

Importance  of  Teaching  Forms.  (1)  The  study  of  forms 
(see  chapter  on  Drawing)  is  a  most  excellent  discipline.  (2) 
A  knowledge  of  forms  is  essential  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
physical  universe.  (3)  The  culture  and  knowledge  obtained 
in  the  study  of  forms  is  an  essential  equipment  in  the  study 
of  geometry,  in  art,  and  in  many  practical  affairs. 

II.    COLOE. 

a.  Ifie  Nature  of  Color. 
In  order  to  understand  the  nature  of  color,  it  is  necessary 
to  study  (1)  The  Solar  Spectrum,  (2)  Synthesis  of  Colors,  (3) 
Analysis  of  Compounds,  (4)  Complements,  (5)  Harmonies,  and 
(6)  Broken  Colors.  The  Young-Helmholtz  theory  (see  Nat- 
ural Philosophy)  is  quite  generally  accepted  by  the  scientists 
of  the  present  time.  A  very  convenient  statement  of  this  the- 
ory and  its  applications  to  education  is  to  be  found  in  "  Color 


94  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  the  Schoolroom,"  by  the  Milton  Bradley  Company,  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts.  This  little  book  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  every  teacher. 

The  Solar  Spectrum.  "  According  to  this  theory  all 
color  in  Nature  is  contained  in  sunlight,  which  is  practically 
white  light.  When  a  beam  of  sunlight,  admitted  into  a  dark- 
ened room,  passes  through  a  glass  prism  it  is  spread  out  like 
a  fan  into  a  band  of  beautiful  colors,  beginning  at  one  end 
with  a  dark  red,  gradually  changing  to  a  brighter  red,  which 
runs  into  an  orange  and  then  through  yellow,  green,  and  blue 
to  violet,  which  gradually  fades  away  into  darkness."  This 
band  of  colors  is  termed  the  Solar  Spectrum.  "  The  beam  of 
sunlight  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  different  kinds  of 
rays,  which  in  passing  through  the  prism  are  refracted  or  bent 
from  their  direct  course,  and  some  are  bent  more  than  others ; 
the  red  least  of  all,  and  the  violet  most.  It  is  supposed  that 
light  is  propagated  by  waves  or  undulations,  in  an  extremely 
rare  substance  termed  ether,  which  is  supposed  to  occupy  all 
space  and  transparent  bodies.  These  waves  are  thought  to  be 
similar  to  sound  waves  in  the  air,  or  the  ripples  on  the  smooth 
surface  of  a  pond  when  a  pebble  is  thrown  into  it." 

Standard  Colors.  "  The  standards  must,  of  course,  be  chosen 
from  the  solar  spectrum.  The  amount  that  rays  of  light  are 
refracted  from  a  straight  line  in  passing  through  a  prism  is  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  waves  or  undulations  per  second, 
and  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  waves.  The  red 
waves  are  refracted  the  least  and  are  the  longest,  while  the 
violet  rays  are  refracted  the  most  and  are  the  shortest."  The 
following  wave-lengths  are  assumed  as  standard  colors  :  6600, 
Eed ;  6100,  Orange ;  5800,  Yellow ;  5200,  Green  ;  4700,  Blue ; 
4200,  Violet.  (The  figures  represent  ten  millionths  of  a 
millimetre.) 

Scales  of  Color.  (1)  "  Any  pure  or  full  color  mixed  with 
white,  or  reduced  by  strong  light,"  is  termed  a  Tint.     (2)  "  A 


OBJECT  LESSONS  95 

full  color  in  shade,  i.e.,  with  a  low  degree  of  illumination,"  is 
termed  a  Shade.  (3)  "  A  Scale  is  a  series  of  colors  consisting 
of  a  pure  or  full  color  at  the  centre  and  graduated  by  a  succes- 
sion of  steps  to  a  light  tint  on  one  side  and  a  deep  shade  on  the 
other."  (4)  "  A  color  mixed  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  an- 
other color  is  called  a  Tone."  Thus  a  scale  of  color  is  any 
spectrum  transition  from  tint  through  tone  into  shade.  (5) 
Accordingly  there  may  be  as  many  Scales  of  Color  as  there  are 
standards  or  tones  in  the  spectrum. 

Synthesis  of  Colors.  "If  having  a  prismatic  spectrum 
thrown  on  a  screen  in  a  dark  room  we  hold  two  small  mirrors 
in  the  path  of  the  light,  one  so  placed  as  to  receive,  for  exam- 
ple, the  red  rays  and  the  other  the  violet  rays,  the  mirrors  may 
be  so  moved  as  to  reflect  the  red  and  the  violet  rays  on  one 
spot  on  another  screen.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  will 
be  a  mingling  of  the  two  colors  to  produce  a  color  between  the 
violet  and  the  red  usually  called  purple.  And  so  we  may 
select  any  other  two  colors  and  thus  determine  what  color  is 
produced  by  the  mingling  of  any  two  or  more  spectrum  colors. 
But  it  is  very  inconvenient  to  make  such  tests,  even  with  the 
best  apparatus  and  most  favorable  conditions."  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  produce  practically  the  same  effects  by  means  of 
the  Color  Wheel  and  the  Maxwell  Disks.  (See  the  Bradley 
books.)  If  graduated  disks  are  used,  the  exact  proportions 
entering  into  composition  may  be  observed  and  recorded. 

Analysis  of  Compounds.  The  colors  found  in  Nature 
and  Art  are  generally  composite  colors,  as  in  leaves,  flowers, 
ribbons,  etc.  By  combining  and  adjusting  graduated  Maxwell 
disks,  it  is  possible  to  imitate  the  color  of  leaves,  ribbons,  etc., 
and  thus  to  ascertain  the  exact  analysis  of  such  color-com- 
pounds. 

Complements.  "  As  white  light  is  the  sum  of  all  color, 
if  we  take  from  white  light  a  given  color,  the  remaining  color 
is  the  Complement  of  the  given  color.     When  the  eye  has  been 


96  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

fatigued  by  looking  intently  for  a  few  seconds  at  a  red  spot  on 
a  white  wall  and  is  then  slightly  turned  to  the  wall,  a  faint 
tint  of  a  bluish  green  is  seen,  and  this  is  called  the  accidental 
color  of  the  red,  which  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  its 
complementary  color.  Theoretically  the  complementary  of 
yellow  is  a  very  slight  violet  blue,  and  of  blue  an  orange 
yellow.  The  complementary  of  green  is  violet  red  and  of 
violet  a  yellow  green  or  green  yellow.  The  complementary 
of  red  is  blue  green,  and  of  orange  a  green  blue. 

Harmonies.  "  Two  colors  are  said  to  be  in  harmony  or  to 
combine  harmoniously  if  the  effect  is  pleasing  when  they  are  in 
juxtaposition  or  are  used  in  composition.  There  are  about 
five  species  of  color  harmony.  Complementary  colors  are  har- 
monious ;  for  the  other  species  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
Bradley  system. 

Broken  Colors.  "  In  addition  to  the  spectrum  standards 
and  intermediate  hues  and  their  tints  and  shades,  there  is  an- 
other class  of  colors  which  in  general  terms  may  be  called 
Broken  Colors.  A  broken  color,  as  a  broken  red  for  exam- 
ple, is  a  standard  red  mixed  with  neutral  gray,  that  is  with 
black  and  white.  In  still  other  words,  a  broken  color  is  a 
tint  of  that  color  in  shadow.  In  Nature  nearly  all  colors  are 
broken."  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  tapestries,  hangings, 
carpets,  ladies'  dress  goods,  etc.  "  Ecru,"  for  example,  is  a 
broken  orange  yellow,  whose  proportions  in  terms  of  100  are 
orange  12,  yellow  15,  white  17,  and  black  56. 

b.  Instruction  in  Color. 

Three  things  deserve  the  attention  of  teachers  of  color :  (1) 
Course  of  Lessons ;  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction ;  and  (3) 
The  Importance  of  Color-Lessons. 

Course  of  Lessons.  To  satisfy  the  demands  of  culture 
and  life,  the  course  of  color-lessons  should  embrace  the  follow- 
ing subjects:  (1)  The  Solar  Spectrum;  (2)  Standard  Colors; 


OBJECT  LESSONS  97 

(3)  Matching  Colors;  (4)  Mixing  Colors;  (5)  Analysis  of 
Colors ;  (6)  Discovery  of  Complementary  Colors ;  (7)  Har- 
monies of  Color ;  (8)  Broken  Colors ;  (9)  Language  of  Colors ; 
and  (10)  Tests  for  Color-Blindness. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Color-Lessons.  The 
nature  of  the  task  in  color-lessons  makes  it  necessary  for 
teachers  to  consider  (1)  Preparations  for  Color-Lessons,  and 
(2)  The  Recitation-Method  in  Color-Lessons. 

Preparations  for  Color- Lessons.  (1)  The  necessary  materials 
for  a  color-lesson  must  be  procured.  This  task  devolves  in 
part  upon  the  teacher  and  in  part  upon  the  pupils.  Every 
school-room  in  which  color-lessons  are  to  be  taught  should,  if 
possible,  be  supplied  with  prisms,  charts,  color-wheel  and  the 
Maxwell  disks,  color-tops  and  the  Maxwell  disks,  colored 
crayons,  water  colors,  colored  papers  that  do  not  contain 
arsenic.  Silks,  worsteds,  etc.,  should  be  added.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  collect  colored  leaves,  worsteds,  etc. 
When  the  time  for  recitation  has  come,  the  necessary  mate- 
rials should  be  on  hand  and  in  working  order. 

(2)  It  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  make  many  ex- 
periments with  the  prism,  color-wheel,  etc.,  to  be  sure  that  he 
can  make  the  desired  points  in  the  coming  recitations. 

(3)  The  pupils  should  be  required  to  make  such  prepara- 
tions as  the  nature  of  the  case  may  demand.  As  a  rule  only 
older  pupils  can  be  expected  to  make  formal  preparations  for 
color-lessons. 

The  Recitation-Method  in  Color- Lessons.  (1)  All  color- 
lessons  should  begin  with  Observation.  The  observations 
necessary  in  color-lessons  must  often  amount  to  experiment. 

(2)  Induction  should  follow  observation.  The  possibility 
of  ascertaining  general  truths  is,  indeed,  the  great  reason  for 
observing  colors  in  these  lessons.  When,  for  example,  the 
pupils  have  observed  the  spectrum  many  times,  they  should 
be  led  to  inquire  whether  the  same  results  can  always  be  ex- 


98  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

pected.  The  habit  of  looking  for  that  which  will  always 
happen  in  mixing  colors,  in  complements,  in  harmonies,  etc., 
should  be  early  developed. 

(3)  Deduction  should  follow  induction.  When  the  pupil 
has  found  some  general  truth,  he  should  be  led  to  make  it  a 
life-rule.     It  is  thus  that  science  becomes  art. 

(4)  All  the  technical  terms  needed  in  color-lessons  should  be 
introduced  in  strict  association  with  that  which  they  signify. 
Language  lessons  should  follow. 

(5)  The  teacher  should  strive  to  make  color-lessons  as  in- 
teresting and  useful  as  possible,  thus  enlisting  the  heart,  the 
imagination,  and  the  will. 

(6)  For  special  directions  in  lessons  on  complementary  col- 
ors, harmony  of  colors,  language  of  colors,  and  for  methods  of 
testing  children  for  color-blindness,  see  "  Color  in  the  School- 
Room,"  or  Calkin's  "  Manual  of  Object  Teaching." 

Importance  of  Color-Lessons.  To  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  lessons  on  color,  the  reader  must  understand  their 
efficiency  as  a  means  in  culture  and  instruction. 

(1)  There  is  a  general  agreement  among  educators  that 
color-lessons  when  properly  given  utilize  and  improve  all  the 
functions  of  the  mind.  (Let  the  Methods- Student  show  this 
truth  in  detail.) 

(2)  The  knowledge  of  color  is  interesting  for  its  own  sake 
and  a  means  in  the  aesthetic  and  practical  interpretation  of  the 
universe. 

(3)  The  culture  and  knowledge  acquired  in  color-lessons 
serve  many  of  the  ends  of  life,  and  cannot  be  omitted  in  our 
times  without  serious  disadvantage  to  millions  of  people. 

(4)  All  teachers  should,  therefore,  be  able  to  give  such  les- 
sons. The  evidence  of  such  ability  should  be  as  much  in 
demand  by  those  who  license  and  employ  teachers  as  the 
evidence  of  ability  in  the  other  branches  of  our  curriculum. 
Normal  schools  should  offer  the  most  thorough  course  in  colors 


OBJECT  LESSONS 


99 


and  the  method  of  teaching  colors.  The  task  of  thus  equip- 
ping teachers  must  fall  partly  on  the  department  of  natural 
philosophy  and  manual  training  and  partly  on  that  of  peda- 
gogy. The  most  remarkable  progress  along  these  lines  is 
visible  everywhere,  and  the  prospects  are  decidedly  encour- 
aging. 

III.    PAETS   OF   OBJECTS. 

Three  things  deserve  our  attention  in  lessons  on  the  parts 
of  objects :  (1)  The  Course  of  Lessons ;  (2)  The  Method  of 
Instruction ;  and  (3)  The  Importance  of  Lessons  on  the  Parts 
of  Objects. 

The  Course  of  Lessons.  The  following  catalogue  of 
objects  and  their  parts  will  serve  as  an  illustrative  outline  of 
the  work  to  be  done  and  the  domains  of  Nature  and  Art  from 
which  to  choose  the  objects  to  be  studied ; 


1.  Cent. 

2.  Scissors. 

3.  Key. 

4.  Lead  Pencil. 

(1)  Surface. 

(1)  Shaft. 

(1)  Shaft. 

(1)  Wood. 

(2)  Faces. 

(2)  Bows. 

(2)  Ring. 

(2)  Lead. 

(3)  Edges. 

(3)  Limbs. 

(3)  Barrel. 

(3)  Head. 

(4)  MiUing. 

(4)  Blades. 

(4)  Lip. 

(4)  Point. 

(5)  Impression. 

(5)  Edges. 

(5)  Wards. 

(5)  Number. 

(6)  Image. 

(6)  Back. 

(6)  Grooves. 

(6)  Trade  Mark. 

(7)  Superscription. 

(7)  Point. 

(8)  Date. 

(8)  Rivets. 

5.  Bell. 

6.  Shoe. 

7.  Chair. 

8.  Knife. 

(1)  Handle. 

(1)  Upper. 

(1)  Posts. 

(1)  Handle. 

1)  Nut. 

(2)  Binding. 

(2)  Rounds. 

1)  Frame. 

2)  Catch. 

(3)  Seams. 

(3)  Back. 

2)  Rivets. 

3)  Shaft. 

(4)  Lining. 

(4)  Seat. 

3)  Heel. 

4)  Ferule. 

(5)  Strings. 

(5)  Pillars. 

4)  Back. 

5)  Number. 

(6)  Buttons. 

(6)  Spindles. 

5)  Spring. 

(2)  Cup. 

(7)  Eyelets. 

(7)  Slats. 

6)  Sides. 

1)  Border. 

(8)  Vamps. 

(8)  Balls. 

7)  Plate. 

2)  Rim. 

(9)  Welt. 

(9)  Beads. 

8)  Grooves. 

3)  Edge. 

(10)  Shank. 

(10)  Scallops. 

(2)  Joint. 

(3)  Tongue. 

(11)  Counter. 

(11)  Brace. 

1)  Pivot. 

1)  Loop. 

(12)  Tongue. 

(3)  Blade. 

2)  Clapper. 

(13)  Sole. 

1)  Sides. 

(14)  Insole. 

2)  Notch. 

(15)  Tip. 

3)  Back. 

(16)  Heel. 

4)  Edge. 

5)  Point. 

6)  Maker's  Name. 

100 


PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


Wheel. 

(1)  Nave. 

(2)  Box. 

(3)  Spokes. 

(4)  Arm  of  Axletree. 

(5)  Linchpin. 

(6)  Rim. 

1)  Felloes. 

(7)  Tire. 

(8)  Rivets. 

(9)  Centre. 

(10)  Circumference. 


13.  Orange. 

(1)  Peel. 

1)  Rind. 

2)  White. 

(2)  Juice. 

(3)  Pulp. 

(4)  Seeds. 

(5)  Eye. 

(6)  Divisions. 

(7)  Membrane. 


10.  Column. 

(1)  Entablature. 

1)  Cornice. 

2)  Frieze. 

3)  Architrave. 

(2)  Shaft. 

1)  Capital. 

2)  Base. 

(3)  Pedestal. 

1)  Cornice. 

2)  Dado. 

3)  Plinth. 


14.  Acorn. 

(1)  Cup. 

1)  Stem. 

2)  Scales. 

3)  Edges. 

(2)  Nut. 

1)  Shell. 

2)  Kernel. 

3)  Point. 

4)  Scar. 

5)  Membrane. 


11.  Shell. 

(1)  Body. 

1)  Mouth. 

2)  Lip. 

3)  Beak. 

4)  Canal. 

(2)  Spu-e. 

1)  Whorls. 

2)  Sutures. 

3)  Apex. 


15.  Insect. 

(1)  Head. 

1)  Mouth. 

2)  Eyes. 

3)  Feelers. 

(2)  Thorax. 

1)  Wings. 

2)  Legs. 

(3)  Abdomen. 
1)  Segments. 


12.  Flower. 

(1)  Calyx. 
1)  Sepals. 

(2)  Corolla. 
1)  Petals. 

a.  Limb. 
6.  Claw. 

(3)  PistUs. 

1)  Stigma. 

2)  Style. 
3;  Ovary. 

(4)  Stamen. 

1)  Anther. 

2)  Filament. 

3)  Pollen. 

16.  Bird. 

(1)  Head. 

1)  Beak. 

2)  Tongue. 
8)  Eyes. 

(2)  Neck. 
1)  Nape. 

(3)  Body. 

1)  Wings. 

2)  Limbs. 

(4)  Tail. 


The  Method  of  Lessons  on  Object-Parts.  The  objects 
in  question  should  be  observed  analytically.  The  names  of 
the  parts  studied  should  be  introduced  in  the  closest  connec- 
tion with  the  observation  of  the  parts.  The  pupil  should  be 
led  to  inquire  into  the  uses  and  history  of  the  parts  of  objects 
in  their  surroundings.  "  The  Young  Folks'  Cyclopaedia  of 
Common  Things,"  published  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  is  a  most 
excellent  reference  book  for  teachers.  Sheldon's  "Object 
Lessons/'  published  by  Scribner,  Armstrong  &  Co.,  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  every  teacher. 

Importance  of  Lessons  on  Object-Parts.  (1)  There  is 
probably  no  better  means  of  cultivating  the  habit  of  analytic 
observation  and  'practical  thoughtfulness  than  these  lessons  on 
the  parts  of  objects.  These  lessons  also  develop  the  habit  of 
associatins:  words  and  sentences  Avith  the  realities  for  which 
they  stand.     This  is  an  ideal  result. 


OBJECT  LESSONS 


101 


(2)  Analytic  knowledge  of  objects  is  a  great  satisfaction  to 
most  minds,  and  a  mighty  stimulus  in  the  formation  of  the 
habit  of  scientific  inquiry. 

(3)  The  habit  of  analytic  observation  and  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired,  are  among  the  best  equipments  in  theoretical 
and  practical  life.  Apart  from  such  equipment,  theory  is  often 
fancy  and  practice  full  of  blunders. 

IV.   QUALITIES   OF  OBJECTS. 

Lessons  on  the  qualities  of  objects  should  be  added  to  those 
on  form,  color,  and  parts.  It  is  probably  most  convenient  to 
teach  qualities  in  connection  with  parts  and  uses.  Three 
things  deserve  our  attention  at  this  point :  (1)  The  Course  of 
Lessons ;  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction ;  and  (3)  The  Impor- 
tance of  Lessons  on  Qualities. 

The  Course  of  Lessons.  The  following  catalogue  of 
qualities  will  serve  as  an  outline  of  the  course : 


Extension. 

Resistance. 

Sight. 

Taste. 

Round. 

Hard. 

Pliable. 

Transparent. 

Edible. 

Square. 

Soft. 

Elastic. 

Translucent. 

Pungent, 

Angular. 

Rough. 

Ductile. 

Opaque. 

Sapid. 

Triangular. 

Smooth. 

Malleable. 

Brilliant. 

Nutritious. 

Rectangular. 

Stiff. 

Buoyant. 

Tasteless. 

Cylindrical. 

Limber. 

Compressible. 

Smell. 

Emollient. 

Spherical. 

Light. 

Pulverable. 

Odorous. 

Salient. 

Concave. 

Heavy. 

Fusible. 

Aromatic. 

etc. 

Spiral. 

Solid. 

Volatile. 

Saline. 

Serrated. 

Liquid. 

Inflammable. 

Amorphous. 

Brittle. 
Flexible. 
Adhesive. 
Tenacious. 

Combustible. 

Soluble. 

Insoluble. 

The  Method  of  Lessons  on  Qualities.  Qualities  should 
generally  be  studied  in  connection  with  parts  and  uses.  The 
pupil  should  be  led  to  experience  the  qualities  which  the 
teacher  wishes  to  teach.  The  name  should  then  be  intro- 
duced.    The  pupils  should  also  be  led  to  think  to  what  uses 


102         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

objects  having  such  qualities  can  be  put  just  because  they  have 
these  qualities.  Sheldon's  "  Lessons  on  Objects"  is  the  teach- 
er's indispensable  companion. 

Importance  of  Lessons  on  Qualities.  The  study  of 
qualities  is  the  study  of  the  forces  of  the  physical  universe,  and 
is  probably  the  most  practical  mental  employment. 


V.   NATURE  STUDIES. 

The  informal  study  of  plants,  animals,  minerals,  etc.,  just 
as  we  come  upon  them  in  Nature,  is  termed  Nature  Study. 
Such  lessons  will  be  the  only  opportunity  of  many  pupils  to 
gain  an  insight  into  our  great  and  wonderful  world.  Three 
things  deserve  our  attention  :  (1)  The  Course  of  Studies;  (2) 
The  Method  of  Instruction;  and  (3)  The  Importance  of 
Nature  Studies. 

The  Course  of  Nature  Studies.  The  course  of  lessons 
in  nature  studies  must  be  left  in  great  part  to  the  teacher,  his 
selection  of  studies  depending  upon  his  surroundings.  Never- 
theless teachers  of  nature  studies  should  select  subjects  as  much 
as  possible  within  some  system.  To  succeed  in  this  attempt 
teachers  need  a  training  in  the  natural  sciences. 

Botany.  The  habit  of  observing  plants  should  be  culti- 
vated in  the  pupils  of  our  schools.  The  teacher  should  strive 
to  rouse  great  interest  in  these  observations,  leading  the  chil- 
dren to  think  for  themselves,  and  to  come  into  close  touch 
with  Nature.  Our  pupils  should  know  the  names  of  the  com- 
mon plants,  flowers,  trees,  etc.,  in  their  neighborhood,  in  con- 
nection with  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  useful  facts  per- 
taining to  such  plants.  Miss  Youmans'  "  First  Book  of 
Botany,"  published  by  Appleton  &  Co.,  is  a  very  excellent 
companion  for  the  teacher  in  this  work. 

Zoology.  The  habit  of  observing  the  insects,  birds,  mam- 
mals, etc.,  in  the  neighborhood,  should  be  developed  in  our 


OBJECT  LESSONS  103 

pupils.  The  teacher  should  strive  to  rouse  great  interest  in 
these  studies,  leading  the  pupils  to  think  for  themselves  and 
to  come  into  touch  with  the  heart  of  Nature.  Our  pupils 
should  know  the  names  of  common  animals,  their  homes,  to- 
gether with  some  of  their  habits,  uses,  etc.  "  Natural  History 
Object  Lessons,"  published  by  Heath  &  Co.,  is  a  convenient 
companion  for  teachers. 

Note.  Courses  similar  to  those  just  suggested  for  plants 
and  animals,  should  be  planned  in  mineralogy,  physiology, 
etc.  But,  although  in  the  teacher's  mind  there  should  be  some 
system  of  selecting  subjects  of  study,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  lessons  from  becoming  stiff  and  formal. 

The  Lesson-Method  of  Nature  Studies.  The  most  op- 
portune time  of  the  day  should  be  devoted  to  the  study  of 
some  interesting  plant,  insect,  etc.,  found  by  the  pupils  or  the 
teacher.  These  lessons  need  not  come  every  day,  nor  at  the 
same  hour,  and  should  never  be  longer  than  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  The  greatest  freedom  of  inquiry  should  be  allowed 
to  pupils,  and  the  teacher  should  meet  these  inquiries  with 
such  help  as  seems  best.  The  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to 
find  out  as  much  as  possible  by  their  own  efforts.  The  teacher 
must  supervise  inquiry  by  means  of  skilful  questions.  The 
teacher  should  be  prepared  to  lead  the  pupils  without  seeming 
to  do  so  formally. 

The  Importance  of  Nature  Studies.  In  our  days  very 
great  stress  is  laid  on  "  nature  study."  Educators  insist  on 
it,  that  nature  study  is  an  invaluable  means  of  culture  and  a 
necessary  preparation  for  the  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  literature,  etc. 

The  Culture- Value  of  Nature  Studies.  In  these  informal 
inquiries  into  the  phenomena  of  Nature  as  it  presents  itself  to 
experience,  the  first  aim  is  to  discover  facts.  But  inquiry 
does  not  end  with  the  ascertainment  of  facts ;  the  pupil  is 
stimulated  to  form  opinions.     Thus  it  appears  that  the  per- 


104         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ceptive  and  reflective  faculties  come  into  service,  but  they 
come  into  service  in  such  a  way  as  to  require  the  most  faithful 
employment  of  memory,  imagination,  taste,  and  will. 

The  Instruction  Value  of  Nature  Studies.  The  knowledge 
acquired  in  nature  studies  is  charmingly  interesting  in  itself — 
a  veritable  revelation  of  mysteries — a,  glimpse  into  the  great 
thoughts  of  God,  of  which  objects  are  simply  the  embodiment. 
Moreover,  the  ideas  and  facts  thus  gathered  are  the  proper 
data  for  later  scientific  conclusions. 

The  Practical  Value  of  Nature  Studies.  The  habit  of  ob- 
serving plants,  animals,  stones,  etc.,  together  with  the  know- 
ledge thus  acquired,  will  help  to  fit  our  pupils  for  various  in- 
dustries, such  as  farming,  gardening,  care  of  animals,  etc.  The 
practical  results  of  nature  study  are  alone  worth  the  time  they 
require. 

The  Method  of  Object  Lessons.  The  distinctive  feature 
of  object  lessons  is  the  requirement  that  all  inquiry  must  begin 
with  sensible  observation.  This  requirement  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  procure  a  suitable  supply  of  materials,  with  which  the 
teacher  must  become  thoroughly  familiar.  The  recitation 
should  generally  be  conducted  according  to  some  definite  plan 
thought  out  by  the  teacher  in  preparing  for  the  recitation. 
Generally  no  formal  preparation  is  to  be  required  on  the  part 
of  pupils.  For  details  see  the  method  of  lessons  on  form, 
color,  parts,  qualities,  and  nature  studies. 

The  Importance  of  Object  Lessons.  The  importance  of 
object  lessons  is  generally  admitted  to  be  very  great.  (1)  As 
pointed  out  under  form,  color,  parts,  qualities,  and  nature 
studies,  object  lessons,  although  designed  primarily  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  senses,  in  connection  with  memory,  judgment), 
and  attention,  really  call  the  whole  pupil  into  service.  (2) 
Then,  too,  the  knowledge  acquired  in  object  lessons  is  "  first 
hand,"  and  therefore  warm  with  interest  for  learners.  Such 
knowledge  becomes  the  mightiest  incentive  to  subsequent  scien- 


OBJECT  LESSONS  105 

tific  research.  (3)  The  practical  results  reach  into  every  de- 
partment of  mental  culture  and  into  almost  every  department 
of  practical  life.  (4)  The  ability  of  teachers  to  teach  object 
lessons  effectively  should  be  developed  in  all  schools  preparing 
teachers. 


106        PKINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
CHAPTER    III. 

READING. 

The  pedagogics  of  reading  is  concerned  with  two  problems 
(1)  The  Nature  of  Reading ;  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Reading. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  READING-. 

It  serves  our  present  purpose  to  study  the  nature  of  reading 
under  three  heads :  (1)  The  "  Subject"  of  Reading ;  (2)  The 
Psychology  of  Reading ;  and  (3)  The  History  of  Reading. 

I.  THE  SUBJECT  OF  READING. 

The  logical  phases  of  reading  are  pronunciation,  comprehen- 
sion, and  expression. 

Pronunciation.  Reading  presupposes  visible  records  of 
thought  and  sentiment.  Reading  consists  of  interpreting  these 
records  and  expressing  their  content.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  know  the  mental  value  of  words  and  to  acquire  the 
power  to  pronounce  words.  The  mental  value  of  words  is 
learned  in  the  process  of  learning  to  pronounce.  It  is  evident 
(First  Principle  of  Instruction)  that  pronunciation  begins 
with  imitation  and  ends  in  synthesis.  Analysis  intervenes 
when  pronunciation  begins  with  whole  words.  Pronuncia- 
tion, i.e.,  the  complete  utterance  of  a  word-whole,  implies 
enunciation,  articulation,  and  accentuation.  The  distinct  utter- 
ance of  the  sounds  of  a  word  is  termed  Enunciation.  The 
utterance  of  a  word- whole,  as  "  control,"  is  somewhat  inter- 
rupted by  oral  rests,  or  pauses.  The  resulting  parts  of  words 
are  termed  Syllables.  The  synthesis  of  syllables  into  word- 
wholes  is  termed  Articulation.  Vocal  stress  on  syllables  is 
termed  Accent. 


EEADING  107 

Laws  of  Pronunciation.  The  tendencies  in  pronuncia- 
tion are  probably  phonetic  laws,  though  arbitrary  usage  has 
introduced  many  exceptions  into  the  English  language. 

Laws  of  Enunciation.  (1)  Vowels  are  generally  short  in 
two  or  three  letter  words,  except  such  as  end  with  r;  before 
two  or  more  consonants  the  first  of  which  is  not  r;  and  in  un- 
accented syllables,  except  when  followed  by  w  or  r.  (2)  When 
a  vowel  is  separated  by  a  single  consonant  from  final  e,  that 
vowel  is  generally  long,  and  the  e  silent.  When  two  vowels, 
not  proper  diphthongs,  come  together,  the  former  is  generally 
long,  and  the  latter  silent.  (3)  When  it  follows  w  and  is  not 
followed  by  r,  a  is  generally  equivalent  to  short  o.  (4)  When 
r  separates  a  from  final  e,  a  is  circumflexed,  and  e,  silent ;  as, 
hare.  A  is  also  circumflexed  before  ir,  and  the  i,  silent.  (5) 
Before  r,  and  r  with  another  consonant,  a  is  generally  Italian ; 
as,  car,  barn.  Such  words  as  war,  carry,  and  parallel,  are  ex- 
ceptions, (6)  A  is  short  Italian  before  ss,  sk,  sp,  st,ff,ft,  nt, 
and  no,  except  when  iv  precedes  a.  (7)  A  is  broad  before  w, 
II,  Ik,  Id,  It,  ub,  ul,  and  ught,  and  when  w  precedes  ar.  (8)  Before 
ign  and  igh,  e  is  generally  equivalent  to  long  a.  (9)  E  is  gen- 
erally waved  before  r;  as,  her.  (10)  When  the  liquids  are  fol- 
lowed by  en  final  in  an  unaccented  syllable,  e  is  short ;  but 
when  it  follows  d,  k,  p,  s,  t,  v,  x,  sh,  and  th,  e  is  generally  silent. 
(11)  When  d  final  follows  b,  c,  d,  n,  ss,  p,  and  u  or  ew  long, 
e  is  generally  short.  (12)  When  il  or  in  final  is  foimd  in  an 
unaccented  syllable,  i  is  generally  short.  (13)  After  w  and 
before  k,  oo  is  generally  short ;  as,  wood,  took.  When  w  does 
not  precede  or  r  follow,  oo  is  generally  long ;  as,  mood,  soothe. 
(14)  0  is  generally  circumflexed  before  r,  and  ught;  as,  for, 
thought.  (15)  0  is  generally  silent  in  final  or  without  an 
accent  after  c,  ck,  s,  or  t  (16)  When  r,  sh,  and  y,  separate  u 
from  final  e,  u  is  equivalent  to  oo,  and  e  is  silent.  (17)  Uis 
generally  equivalent  to  consonantal  w  in  words  and  syllables 
beginning  with  qu;  in  dissyllables  and  trisyllables  where  ui 


108         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

or  ue  follows  q;  in  words  beginning  with  eu  followed  by  i; 
and  in  unaccented  syllables  beginning  with  g  where  u  is  followed 
by  a,  i,  or  o.  (16)  Obscure  vowels  occur  only  in  unaccented 
syllables.  (17)  Cand  g  are  generally  soft  before  e,  i,  and  y  ; 
and  hard  before  a,  o,  u,  k,  I,  r,  and  t.  (18)  iJ  is  generally 
silent  after  g  and  r;  after  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable ;  and 
before  some  vowels.  (19)  L  is  generally  silent  between  a  and 
/,  a  and  h,  a  and  m,  a  and  v.  (20)  N  is  generally  equivalent 
to  ng  hard  before  h  and  q,  and  before  c,  g,  and  x  hard.  (21) 
/S'is  generally  hard  after  vowels,  and  all  consonants  except/, 
A;,  jp,  and  t.  In  sion  and  sure,  it  is  soft  after  all  consonants. 
(22)  2  is  generally  silent  before  eh;  also,  after  s  in  dissyllables 
ending  in  en  and  le.  (23)  T/^  is  breathed  before  r,  zr,  and  some 
vowels ;  also  as  final  consonants,  except  in  verbs  and  generally 
in  plural  nouns.  (24)  Th  is  generally  voiced  as  first  letters  of 
personal,  relative,  and  demonstrative  pronouns,  and  adverbs ; 
in  plurals  of  words  ending  in  th;  in  verbs  ending  in  ih  and  the; 
and  in  the  preposition  with  or  its  derivatives.  (25)  Before  any 
vowel  except  o,  wh  is  generally  equivalent  to  hiv.  (26)  W  is 
generally  silent  in  words  and  syllables  beginning  with  tor;  after 
a,  and  in  the  improper  diphthong  ow.  (27)  Xis  generally  hard 
before  an  accented  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  or  silent 
h,  but  soft  before  syllables  beginning  with  a  consonant.  (28) 
There  are  many  less  important  rules  of  enunciation  and  articu- 
lation; but  space  does  not  permit  us  to  record  them  here. 
Teachers  should  study  the  principles  of  pronunciation  more 
fully  in  Worcester's  Unabridged  Dictionary,  or  in  some  good 
book  on  Orthoepy. 

Laws  of  Articulation.  (1)  The  natural  rests  of  the  vocal 
organs  in  pronunciation  generally  determine  the  syllables,  as 
in  observation.  (2)  Prefixes  and  suffixes  generally  constitute 
new  syllables,  as  in  improper,  contentment,  expulsion.  (3) 
In  articulation  the  etymological  composition  of  a  word  is 
generally  less  attended  to  than  ease  of  utterance,  though  the 


EEADING  109 

two  tendencies  often  result  in  the  same  spelling ;  as^  compo- 
nent, etymological. 

Laws  of  Accentuation.  (1)  Derivative  words  take  for  a 
time,  if  not  permanently,  the  accent  of  the  original  words  from 
which  they  are  formed ;  as,  contentment,  comprehend.  (2) 
Ease  of  utterance  has  some  influence  in  deciding  the  place  of 
the  accent ;  as,  utensil,  excellent.  (3)  In  words  of  two  sylla- 
bles there  is  a  tendency  to  accent  the  first  syllable  of  a  noun, 
and  the  last  of  a  verb;  as,  convert,  accent,  record.  (4)  In 
words  of  three  or  more  syllables  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
accent  the  antepenult;  as,  contemplate,  eloquent,  intricate. 
(5)  These  tendencies  of  accent  have  many  exceptions  by  con- 
flict with  each  other.  The  student  should  refer  to  Worcester's 
Unabridged  Dictionary  for  a  full  discussion. 

Comprehension.  Comprehension  in  reading,  i.e.,  getting 
the  thought  and  sentiment,  begins  in  the  process  of  associating 
written  with  spoken  words ;  it  ends  in  the  sentential  associa- 
tion of  words.  That  which  is  orally  read,  but  without  think- 
ing, is  only  pronunciation.  Intelligible  reading  is  impossible, 
as  we  shall  see,  for  one  who  does  not  understand  and  feel  what 
he  reads. 

Expression.  "  Expression"  in  reading  denotes  the  eflective 
conveyance  of  thought  and  sentiment  by  adaptations  in  pronun- 
ciation, by  facial  movements,  and  by  gestures.  The  most  im- 
portant means  of  expression  in  reading,  are  those  adaptations 
in  pronunciation  commonly  termed  fluency,  time,  pitch,  force, 
quality  of  voice. 

Fluency.  The  ability  to  recognize  quickly  and  to  pronounce 
readily  the  words  as  they  are  seen  in  reading,  is  termed  Flu- 
ency. Lisping  and  stammering  are  two  forms  'of  violated 
fluency.  (1)  Lisping  is  an  obstructed  utterance  of  soft  s,  the 
sound  given  being  flat  th  ;  as,  thick  for  sick.  (2)  Stammering 
is  an  obstructed  utterance  of  syllables.  Sometimes  it  is  impos- 
sible for  one  who  stammers,  to  utter  the  intended  syllable  at 


110         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

all^  and  sometimes  he  repeats  the  syllable  involuntarily ;  as, 
st,  st,  stand.  The  causes  and  remedies  of  lisping  and  stam- 
mering will  be  discussed  by  and  by. 

Emphasis.  Any  impressive  way  of  uttering  words  or 
phrases  in  reading,  is  termed  Emphasis.  There  are  four 
species  of  emphasis;  namely,  Stress,  Pause,  Inflection,  and 
Time.  (1)  The  extra  force  with  which  some  word  or  phrase 
is  uttered  in  reading,  is  termed  Stress.  Stress  may  be  com- 
pound, intermittent,  median,  radical,  or  vanishing.  (See 
Elocution.)  (2)  When,  after  uttering  some  word  in  a  sen- 
tence, the  reader  stops,  or  allows  an  interval  of  time,  before  he 
proceeds,  the  emphasis  is  termed  Pause.  (3)  Ascent  and  de- 
scent of  pitch  in  the  utterance  of  a  word  in  reading,  is  termed 
Inflection.  (4)  Quick,  ordinary,  and  slow  utterance  of  a  word 
in  reading,  is  termed  Time. 

The  Laws  of  Emphasis.  (1)  Words  expressing  new  ideas 
are  emphasized.  (2)  Words  expressing  important  ideas  are 
emphasized.  (3)  Words  expressing  contrasted  ideas  are  em- 
phasized. 

Movement.  Every  variety  of  pace  in  reading  a  sentence,  is 
termed  Movement.  It  is  the  function  of  movement  to  express 
the  reader's  feelings. 

Pitch.  The  degree  of  elevation  of  the  voice  in  reading,  is 
termed  Pitch.  Pitch  is  high,  medium,  low,  monotonous,  or 
varied.     It  is  the  function  of  pitch  to  expr^^ss  sentiments. 

Force.  Degree  of  stress  in  reading  a  sentence,  is  termed 
Force.  Force  is  either  loud  or  intense.  The  degrees  of  force 
are  subdued,  moderate,  and  loud.  It  is  the  function  of  force 
to  aid  the  ear  of  the  hearer,  and  to  express  strong  feeling. 

Quality  of  Voice.  Tone  of  voice  in  reading  is  termed  Qual- 
ity. The  qualities  of  voice  are  pure,  aspirated,  guttural, 
nasal,  and  orotund.  It  is  the  function  of  "  quality  of  voice" 
to  express  the  various  feelings  and  shades  of  feelings  in 
readers. 


BEADING  111 

II.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  READING. 

In  view  of  the  "subject"  of  reading  (see  pages  106  to  110) 
we  conclude  that  the  mental  acts  in  reading  are  those  involved 
in  pronunciation,  comprehension,  and  expression. 

Pronunciation.  (1)  The  "  facts"  of  pronunciation,  whether 
they  be  the  facts  of  imitation,  analysis,  or  synthesis,  are  learned, 
as  in  other  studies,  by  observation,  i.e.,  by  the  use  of  the  judg- 
ment in  connection  with  the  senses.  This  connection  implies 
attention,  memory,  and  imagination. 

(2)  The  "  principles"  (laws)  of  pronunciation,  w^hether  they 
be  those  of  imitation,  analysis,  or  synthesis,  are  learned,  as  in 
other  studies,  by  induction. 

(3)  By  deductive  application  of  principles,  pronunciation 
becomes  practical  skill. 

Comprehension.  (1)  Which  functions  of  the  intellect  must 
be  employed  in  reading,  depends  on  the  contents  of  the  page 
in  question.  (2)  The  emotional  sequences  (see  the  tenth  law 
of  mental  activity)  in  reading,  depend  on  the  character  of  the 
intellectual  activity.  (3)  The  reader  must  use  his  will  both  in 
getting  the  mental  contents  of  a  page  and,  as  we  shall  see,  in 
expressing  these  contents. 

Expression.  (1)  The  "facts"  of  expression  in  reading, 
whether  they  be  those  of  fluency,  time,  force,  pitch,  emphasis, 
or  quality  of  voice,  must  be  learned  by  observation.  (2)  The 
laws  of  expression,  like  other  laws,  are  learned  by  induction, 
and  (3)  applied  by  deduction. 

III.  HISTORY  OF  READING. 

The  history  of  reading  is  conveniently  studied  under  two 
heads :  (1)  The  History  of  Methods  of  Instruction  ;  and  (2) 
Reading  in  the  Curriculum  of  Schools. 

History  of  Methods.  (See  pages  121  to  124,  and  also 
Painter's  History  of  Education.) 


112         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Reading  in  Schools.  Eeading  was  a  subject  of  study  in 
oriental  countries.  The  classical  nations  began  to  lay  great 
stress  on  reading.  The  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  obscured 
the  importance  of  the  subject,  but  could  not  drive  reading  out 
of  the  schools.  Reading  has  become  the  "  great"  study  in  all 
modern  nations. 

B.  nsrSTRUOTION  IN  READING. 

The  special  features  of  instruction  in  reading  come  to  view 
under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  order  of  the  teacher's 
tasks;  (2)  The  methods  of  instruction  ;  (3)  The  courses  of  in- 
struction ;  and  (4)  The  importance  of  reading. 

Order  of  the  Teacher's  Task's.  In  teaching  reading,  the 
tasks,  as  we  know  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  instruction,  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Transition  from  oral 
to  visible  language,  (2)  The  pupil's  emancipation  in  pronun- 
ciation ;  (3)  Fluency  in  expression ;  and  (4)  Adequate  mental 
development. 

The  Method  of  Instruction.  In  reading,  as  in  other 
branches,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  observe  individuals 
of  a  genus,  infer  the  genus  by  analogy,  and  assume  the  genus 
in  subsequent  study.  (Tenth  Principle  of  Instruction  in  con- 
nection with  the  psychology  of  reading.)  Accordingly,  the 
vocabulary  and  sentences  of  elementary  reading  should  be 
representatives  of  genera.  In  pronunciation,  for  example,  rep- 
resentative words  must  be  found  by  the  teacher  and  care- 
fully taught.  "With  these  representative  words,  many  analo- 
gous words  must  be  associated,  until  the  pupil  arrives  at  the 
rule  to  be  learned.  In  this  way  the  inductive  method  will 
become  a  habit  of  the  pupil,  and  his  emancipation  in  pronun- 
ciation assured.  In  due  time  new  words  will  come  to  the 
learner  as  individuals  of  some  family  or  species  with  which  he 
has  already  become  acquainted.  Thus  induction  finds  its  sup- 
plement in  deduction,  and  only  anomalies  will  trouble  the 


READING  113 

learner.  Subsequent  lessons  should  tend  to  develop  accuracy 
and  rapidity  in  deductive  pronunciation.  Of  course,  anoma- 
lies and  complexities  can  be  mastered  only  by  special  and 
persistent  drills.  Emphasis,  movement,  quality  of  voice,  etc., 
can  all  be  taught  in  the  same  M^ay. 

An  Ideal  Vocabulary.  The  following  graded  list  of  rep- 
resentative words  is  constructed  to  meet  our  requirements,  and 
must  be  taught  in  constant  connection  with  the  laws  of  enunci- 
ation stated  for  teachers  on  pages  107  and  108.  The  diacriti- 
cal marks  used  in  the  school  must  always  be  added  according 
to  the  laws  of  enunciation  just  noticed. 

Short  Vowels.  Hat,  at,  man,  an,  fat,  ax,  tack,  hand,  rang, 
sank,  flash,  mat,  egg,  peck,  men,  end,  sent,  kept,  nest,  left, 
dress,  mesh,  in,  it,  ink,  splint,  fist,  with,  kiss,  sniff,  of,  on,  ox, 
pond,  moss,  lost,  up,  rub,  hunt,  must,  muff,  hush. 

Long  Vowels.  Bake,  tape,  late,  male,  name,  wave,  mine, 
pipe,  time,  file,  sole,  rope,  lobe,  fume,  mule,  flute. 

Proper  Diphthongs.  Boil,  toil,  boy,  toy,  out,  snout,  brown, 
town. 

Doubled  Consonants.  Muff,  muffs,  egg,  eggs,  bell,  bells,  hiss. 

Doubled  Vowels.     Book,  food,  nook,  root,  soot. 

Improper  Diphthongs.  Speak,  break,  ceiling,  door,  four, 
blow,  day. 

Ambiguous  Consonants.  City,  cake,  gem,  gate,  goat,  give, 
cuffs,  silks,  desks,  tips,  rasps,  nets,  masts,  tubs,  buds,  logs, 
oils,  teams,  runs,  ears,  fox,  except,  exact,  Xerxes ;  cohesion, 
mansion,  pleasure,  tonsure ;  of,  offer ;  fled,  passed. 

Consonantal  Digraphs.  Church,  laugh,  thin,  this,  chaise, 
shall,  sing. 

Silent  Consonants.  Comb,  doubt ;  pledge ;  gnat ;  ghost, 
Rhone,  Hannah,  honest ;  stick,  knot ;  calf,  calm,  halve,  talk ; 
kiln,  hymn ;  prompt,  psalm,  pneumonia ;  watch,  glisten,  this- 
tle ;  wrap,  crawl. 

Silent  Consonantal  Digraphs.     Yacht,  light,  bought. 


114         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Equivalent  Consonants.  Cat,  kite,  quick,  stick,  chrism ; 
sit,  lace  ;  church,  watch ;  off,  trough,  pheasant ;  joy,  gill,  sol- 
dier ;  hallelujah,  Julia,  yes ;  thank,  song ;  canon ;  has,  zeal ; 
social,  nation,  precious,  chaise,  shall ;  sit,  missed ;  vane,  of ; 
noxious ;  flints,  chintz. 

Intermediate  Vowels.  Again,  around  ;  pare,  fair  ;  ask,  dance ; 
tall,  law,  war ;  bar,  park ;  emit,  the  ;  her ;  pique,  field ;  son, 
word,  nation ;  could,  would ;  your,  tour ;  one,  once ;  for, 
morn ;  omit,  lesson  ;  full,  put ;  rude,  ruin  ;  quay,  conquest. 

Equivalent  Vowels.  Said,  bet ;  was,  not ;  warm,  north ; 
dollar,  father ;  sere,  spleen,  sneak,  field ;  met,  bury ;  miss, 
been,  business,  women  ;  further,  work  ;  her,  fir,  myrrh ;  bite, 
fry,  lye,  high ;  son,  sun. 

Equivalent  Vowel  Digraphs.  Hay,  paid,  break,  they,  feign, 
freight ;  bare,  fair,  where,  their,  wear ;  oh,  toe,  float,  four,  blow, 
floor,  sew  ;  moon,  moves,  crude,  drew  ;  tune,  few,  juice,  due. 

Progress  in  Vocabulary.  (1)  At  first,  and  for  some 
months,  the  vocabulary  of  reading  lessons  should  consist 
mostly  of  concrete  monosyllables  whose  vowel  is  sliort,  and 
the  consonants  simple  ;  as,  hat,  melt,  pin,  pond,  rub.  In  the 
construction  of  sentences  the  teacher  may  introduce,  though 
sparingly,  necessary  words  that  do  not  belong  to  this  genus. 
These  words  must,  of  course,  be  taught  arbitrarily.  The  end- 
ings s  and  es  for  plural  nouns  may  be  introduced.  (2)  Con- 
crete monosyllables  whose  radical  vowel  is  long,  and  e  the 
final  letter,  should  be  taken  up  after  considerable  work  has 
been  done  on  short  vowel  monosyllables.  Dissyllables,  proper 
diphthongs  and  doubled  vowels,  as  well  as  doubled  consonants, 
may  be  introduced  at  this  stage.  The  names  of  the  letters  and 
spelling  become  appropriate  at  this  point.  Print,  charts,  and 
books,  should  be  employed  after  the  first  half  year.  The  first 
and  second  courses  should  together  take  about  one  year.  (3) 
Then  lessons  on  improper  diphthongs,  ambiguous  consonants, 
silent  consonants,  consonantal  digraphs,  silent  consonantal  di- 


EEADING  115 

graphs,  equivalent  consonants,  equivalent  vowels  and  vowel 
digraphs,  and  intermediate  vowels,  should  be  gradually  intro- 
duced. The  teacher  should  not  take  up  any  new  task  until  the 
pupil  has  arrived  at  the  principle  to  be  learned.  If  the  pupil 
knows  the  principles  of  reading,  especially  those  of  pronun- 
ciation, by  the  time  he  has  passed  once  through  the  fourth 
reader,  the  progress  is  amply  sufficient.  His  emancipation 
from  the  teacher's  supervision  in  that  event  will  have  been 
almost  accomplished.     (Eighth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

I.  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  READING. 

It  is  important  to  know  just  lohat  to  do  in  teaching,  and 
how  to  do  it,  and  the  reasons.  The  following  outline  and  ex- 
position are  therefore  submitted  to  teachers  of  reading  : 

The  First  Year  in  Reading-. 

1 .  A  suitable  oral  vocabulary  to  be  built. 

2.  Transition  to  visible  words. 

3.  Audible  and  visible  analysis  of  representative  words. 

Requisite  teaching  ability. 

4.  Visible  analysis  and  audible  synthesis  of  analogous  words. 

5.  Inductive  discovery  of  rules  of  pronunciation,  etc. 

6.  Words  taught  built  into  sentences  as  fast  as  practicable. 

The  teacher's  preparation,  and  record  of  lessons. 

7.  The  function  of  diacritical  marks,  etc. 

8.  Script  letters  and  the  black-board,  capital  letters. 

9.  The  alphabetic  names. 

Building-  a  Suitable  Vocabulary.  The  mode  of  pro- 
cedure in  building  an  oral  vocabulary  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  step.  (Second  Principle  of  Instruction.)  At 
the  age  of  six  years,  the  child  knows  many  objects,  qualities, 
and  actions,  but  may  not  know  their  names  in  English.  In 
that  event,  the  words  to  be  taught  must  be  taught  as  names  of 
objects,  qualities,  and  actions,  jtist  as  mother  does  it,  i.e.,  by 
perceptive  association.     If,  however,  the  English  language  is 


116         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  child's  mother-tongue,  the  appropriate  object,  quality,  or 
action,  is  to  be  named  by  him  at  the  teacher's  request.  The 
object,  quality,  or  action,  need  not  be  present  to  the  child's 
senses,  if  the  teacher  knows  how  to  resort  to  the  child's  mem- 
ories and  concepts.  This  is  usually  accomplished  through 
pictures,  gestures,  questions,  and  other  devices. 

Transition  to  Visible  Words.  The  transition  from  oral 
to  visible  words  can  be  made  as  soon  as  the  pupil  has  learned 
the  oral  word,  though  it  is  thought  best  to  defer  it  for  some 
weeks.  In  case  of  those  children  whose  mother-tongue  is 
English,  the  transition  is  appropriate  as  soon  as  the  child 
comes  to  school.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  perceptive  asso- 
ciation. (Second  Principle  of  Instruction.)  In  other  words, 
the  teacher  gets  the  child  to  speak  some  name,  and  then  writes 
it,  thus  presenting  it  to  the  pupil's  eye.  Objects  and  pictures 
add  interest  to  the  lesson,  but  are  not  essential  to  the  tran- 
sition. 

Audible  and  Visible  Analysis  of  Representative  Words. 
In  building  the  oral  vocabulary  of  representative  words,  as 
well  as  in  the  transition  to  their  visible  forms,  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  pupil  is  to  be  imitative.  The  reasons  are  as  follows  : 
(1 )  At  this  stage  of  childhood  there  is  not  a  sufficient  aptness 
of  understanding  to  warrant  deductive  efforts  so  difficult  as  the 
deductive  use  of  principles  of  pronunciation.  (Third  Princi- 
ple of  Education.)  (2)  At  this  stage  of  childhood  there  is 
sufficient  imitative  aptness  and  activity  to  do  what  is  required. 
The  requirement  is  therefore  appropriate.  (First  Principle  of 
Instruction.) 

In  due  time,  however,  the  pupil  must  be  emancipated  in 
pronunciation,  i.e.,  become  able  to  pronounce  new  words  un- 
aided. But  the  pupil  cannot  pronounce  a  new  visible  word 
by  himself  until  he  acquires  adequate  ability  in  visible  analy- 
sis and  simultaneous  audible  synthesis.  In  other  words,  the 
pupil  can  pronounce  any  new  word,  as  confuse,  by  himself, 


READING  117 

as  soon  as  he  can  decompose  it  into  con-fuse,  and 'unite 
the  sounds  thus  indicated  into  syllables,  and  these,  if  there 
be  more  than  one,  into  the  word- whole.  The  decomposing 
process  is  visible  analysis ;  the  uniting  process,  audible  syn- 
thesis. 

But  visible  analysis  is  impossible  so  long  as  the  pupil  does 
not  know  the  elements  of  which  the  visible  word,  as  rose,  is 
composed.  Therefore  (Second  Principle  of  Instruction)  the 
analysis  of  audible  words,  simultaneous  with  visible  analysis, 
must  be  taught  until  the  pupil  thoroughly  knows  all  the  vis- 
ible representatives  of  the  forty  or  more  elementary  sounds  in 
the  English  language. 

Requisite  Teaching  Ability.  The  teacher  must,  of  course, 
know  the  true  pronunciation  of  the  words  which  he  attempts 
to  analyze.  In  other  words,  he  must  know  the  sounds  of 
which  a  word  is  composed,  the  syllabication,  and  the  accentu- 
ation. Moreover,  he  must  know  how  to  supervise  and  assist 
the  vocalization  of  the  pupil.  It  would  not  do,  for  example, 
to  analyze  the  spoken  word  is  as  if  it  were  spelled  iss,  or  the 
word  voyage,  as  if  it  were  woyage.  Indeed,  the  teacher  needs 
a  thorough  course  in  Orthoepy  and  Elocution  to  accomplish 
artistic  and  satisfactory  results  in  teaching  reading.  This 
training  in  Orthoepy  and  Elocution  is  imperative  in  selecting 
the  analogous  words  to  be  associated  with  representatives  of 
rules,  and  in  supervising  the  pupil's  arrival  at  the  principles 
of  pronunciation. 

Visible  Analysis  and  Audible  Synthesis  of  Analogous 
Words.  As  fast  as  the  pupil  learns  visible  representatives 
of  elementary  sounds,  there  should  be  added  visible  analysis 
of  new  words  that  consist  of  these  visible  representatives.  This 
visible  analysis  renders  audible  synthesis  possible,  and  requires 
it  as  the  necessary  complement  in  independent  pronunciation. 
Audible  synthesis,  as  indicated  by  the  visible  analysis,  must 
therefore  always  be  associated  with  the  visible  analysis  of  new 


118         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

words  presented  diacritically  to  the  pupil's  eye.  When,  for 
example,  the  new  word  arose  is  written  on  the  blackboard, 
and  then  divided  into  a-r  ose,  the  child  must  be  required  to 
unite  the  sounds  thus  represented  into  syllables,  and  these,  if 
there  be  more  than  one,  into  the  word-whole.  There  should 
be  abundant  and  long-continued  practice  in  conjoining  visible 
analysis  and  audible  synthesis.  Indeed,  it  should  be  con- 
tinued for  years  as  a  means  toward  correct  and  pure  articula- 
tion, etc. 

Inductive  Discovery  of  Rules  in  Reading.  When  the 
pupil  can  pronounce  unaided  a  sufficient  number  of  analogous 
words  purposely  associated  in  recitations,  he  must  be  made  to 
see  the  law  to  which  these  words  conform  in  pronunciation. 
The  exceptions  should  be  taught  with  special  reference  to  the 
violated  rule,  and  by  special  drill.  The  teacher  should  not 
attempt  to  teach  many  rules  the  first  winter.  Little  by  little 
the  pupil  will  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  for  analogies  and 
rules.  After  this  inductive  habit  has  come,  the  teacher's  as- 
sistance will  become  less  and  less  necessary.  The  principles 
of  syllabication,  accentuation,  and  elocution,  are,  of  course,  to 
be  taught  in  the  same  way. 

Words  Taught  Built  into  Sentences.  The  representa- 
tive words  used  in  reading  lessons,  and  the  analogous  words, 
as  well  as  the  necessary  arbitrary  words,  should  be  built  into 
sentences.  This  should  be  done  in  all  recitations  and  between 
recitations.  Between  recitations  the  sentences  taught  should 
be  left  on  the  black-board,  and  copied  by  the  pupils.  In  due 
time  the  pupil  should  be  urged  to  construct  sentences  of  his 
own.  This  is  what  the  child  does  with  his  oral  vocabulary. 
It  is  as  natural  and  interesting  to  a  child  to  build  words  into 
sentences  as  it  is  to  build  play-houses.  (Second  Principle  of 
Instruction.) 

The  Teacher's  Preparation  and  Hecord  of  Lessons.  The 
teacher  should  build  the  requisite  representative  words,  and 


EEADING  119 

analogous  words  as  fast  as  necessary,  as  well  as  necessary  arbi- 
trary words,  into  a  graded  series  of  sentences.  The  utmost 
care  and  wisdom  is  needed  in  this  task.  Any  teacher  who 
cannot  do  this  work  well  is  in  so  far  not  qualified  to  teach. 
The  sentences  should  be  recorded,  and  used  in  preparing  for 
recitations. 

The  Function  of  Diacritical  Marks.  If  the  English  lan- 
guage were  absolutely  phonetic,  i.e.,  if  each  elementary  sound 
had  its  own  representative,  or  letter,  and  each  letter  its  own 
phonetic  value,  the  graphic  contrivances  termed  "diacritical 
marks"  would  be  superfluous.  Inasmuch  as  the  English  lan- 
guage is  not  strictly  a  phonetic  language,  diacritical  marks  are 
indispensable  in  the  analysis  of  visible  words.  Until  the  pupil 
arrives  at  the  reflective  stage  of  intellectual  development,  the 
diacritical  marks,  and  perhaps  also  the  accent  marks,  should 
be  used  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupil.  This  is  especially  im- 
portant at  first.  The  symbols  are  to  be  gradually  omitted  by 
the  teacher  when  he  presents  old  words  to  the  pupil's  eye.  In 
this  case  the  pupil's  associative  memory  is  to  be  pressed  into 
service,  and  with  good  reason  ;  for  pronunciation  must  eventu- 
ally become  mechanical,  i.e.,  the  pupil  must  learn  to  read  with- 
out the  aid  of  diacritical  marks,  and  without  thinking  of  rules 
of  pronunciation.  But  the  symbols  are  to  be  employed  with 
all  new  words,  whether  presented  on  the  black-board,  or  found 
on  charts  and  in  elementary  readers.  In  due  time,  however, 
the  pupil  must  be  taught  to  refer  to  the  dictionary.  In  other 
words,  all  graphic  contrivances  should  be  omitted  from  fifth 
readers,  perhaps  from  fourth  readers,  and  the  pupil  should 
rely  on  the  dictionary.     (Eighth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

Script  Letters  and  the  Black-Board.  It  is  deemed  best 
to  employ  script  letters  and  the  black-board  for  several  months 
in  reading  lessons.  (1)  Writing  takes  less  time,  and  is  not  so 
difficult  for  children.  The  printing  that  is  necessary  as  an  in- 
troduction to  charts  and  books,  is  readily  learned  by  associa- 


120         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion.  (2)  The  black-board  is  more  interesting  to  the  learner 
than  charts  and  books,  because  it  makes  movements  the  object 
of  attention.  It  is  with  the  black-board  that  the  teacher  can 
best  show  children  how  to  write  letters,  words,  and  sentences. 
Indeed,  the  pupil  that  watches  his  teacher  write  these  letters 
and  words  day  after  day,  and  then  imitates  them  between  reci- 
tations, on  the  black-board,  slate,  or  tablet,  will  learn  to  write 
without  much  additional  instruction.  (First  Principle  of 
Instruction.)     Teachers  should,  of  course,  be  good  writers. 

Capital  Letters.  Capital  letters  should  be  taught  only 
as  fast  as  needed,  and  by  writing  them  side  by  side  with  the 
corresponding  small  letters,  i.e.,  by  association.  Very  little 
explanation  will  be  needed.      (First  Principle. of  Instruction.) 

The  Alphabetic  Names.  During  the  second  half  of  the 
first  year  in  reading,  the  names  of  the  letters  should  be  taught. 
Up  to  this  time  these  names  are  of  very  little  use,  and  might 
do  much  harm.  As  soon  as  ambiguous  letters,  i.e.,  letters 
with  more  than  one  phonetic  value,  become  frequent,  their 
names  are  a  convenience  in  speaking  of  them.  When  long 
words,  silent  letters,  and  other  complexities,  become  frequent, 
oral  spelling,  and  therefore  the  names  of  the  letters,  should  be 
introduced  as  appropriate  supplements.  In  due  time,  the 
names  of  the  alphabetic  letters  should  be  taught  in  their 
order,  both  backward  and  forward.  This  acquisition  will  be 
a  convenience  in  consulting  dictionaries,  references,  cyclo- 
paedias, etc. 

The  only  way  to  learn  the  alphabetic  names  is  to  associate 
the  name  of  each  letter  with  its  form,  and  to  persevere  in  this 
association  until  the  committing  is  perfected.  Only  a  few  let- 
ters should  be  attempted  at  a  time.  It  may  be  done  in  special 
recitations  or  in  connection  with  exercises  in  reading. 

Between  Recitations.  Visible  analysis,  including  syllabi- 
cation and  accentuation,  as  well  as  sentence-building,  should 
be  required  of  pupils  between  recitations.    Old  words,  or  those 


EEADING  121 

presented  to  the  pupil  at  the  close  of  a  recitation,  and  after 
special  drill,  are  suitable  for  these  purposes.  The  require- 
ment will  impress  recited  lessons  and  pave  the  way  for  the 
next  recitation.  When,  in  due  time,  the  elementary  reader  is 
put  into  the  hands  of  the  child,  he  should  be  required  to  write 
columns  of  words  selected  from  his  lesson  according  to  special 
directions. 

Note.  The  method  described  is  appropriately  termed  the 
"•  Science  Method,"  from  the  fact  that  its  requirements  are  ob- 
servation, induction,  and  deduction.  It  may  also  be  called  the 
"  Psychological  Method,"  from  the  fact  that  it  is  adapted  to 
the  natural  requirements  of  the  mind.  (Tenth  Principle  of 
Instruction.)  The  distinctive  features  of  the  method  are  (1) 
the  orthoepic  choice  of  an  oral  vocabulary,  and  (2)  the  mode 
of  discovering  orthoepic  and  elocutionary  principles.  These 
features  are  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  instruction, 
and  constitute  the  special  claims  of  the  system. 

The  Word  Method.  The  method  of  transition  to  visible 
words,  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Associative  Method,"  from 
the  nature  of  the  process,  and  sometimes  the  "  Word  Method," 
from  the  fact  that  words  rather  than  letters  or  sentences  are 
first  studied.  Jacotot,  a  French  philosopher  and  teacher 
(1770-1840),  was  among  the  first  to  use  this  method.  The 
most  prominent  early  advocate  of  the  method  in  America  was 
Professor  Webb.  For  a  time  it  was  therefore  called  the  Webb 
method.  In  England  it  is  called  the  "  Look  and  Say"  method, 
or,  the  method  of  "  Reading  without  Spelling."  In  itself  the 
"  Word  Method"  is  insufficient.  (1)  It  starts  from  nowhere 
in  particular.  (2)  It  develops  no  power  in  the  pupil.  (3)  It 
aims  at  no  definite  results  in  orthoepy  or  elocution. 

The  Alphabetic  Method.  The  old  "  Alphabetic  Method" 
is  so  evidently  absurd  that  it  should  be  forever  discarded.  By 
this  method  it  was  required  of  the  pupil  to  name  the  letters 
of  a  word,  and  then  to  try  to  pronounce  the  word.     This  was 


122         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

simply  impossible,  because  these  names  are  not  the  elements 
of  which  the  word  is  phonetically  composed.  By  this  method 
the  child  remained  dependent  too  long  on  the  teacher's  super- 
vision and  assistance  in  pronunciation.  The  absurdity  of  the 
method  comes  home  to  adults  when  the  letters  of  some  Greek 
word  are  named,  and  the  effort  is  made  to  pronounce  the  word. 
Thus,  if  the  reader  knows  the  names  of  the  Greek  word  l6yQ<^ 
to  be  respectively  Lambda,  Omicron,  Gamma,  Omicron,  and 
Sigma,  he  cannot  even  begin  to  pronounce  the  word ;  but  if  he 
knows  the  sounds  of  the  letters  to  be  respectively  1  o  g-o  s,  he 
can  pronounce  the  word  at  once. 

The  Phonetic  Method.  The  "Phonetic  Method"  that 
was  advocated  some  years  ago,  is  impracticable,  because  it  re- 
quires the  pupil  to  know  about  fourteen  new  letters  in  addition 
to  our  twenty-six,  in  order  to  avoid  the  diacritical  contrivances. 
The  transition  to  twenty-six  letters  and  the  diacritical  marks 
is  necessary  after  all,  and  is  complicated  rather  than  promoted 
by  the  introductory  phonetic  system.  If,  however,  the  English 
language  were  absolutely  phonetic,  this  system  would  have 
some  real  merit.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  method  will  ever 
be  revived. 

The  Pollard  Method.  The  "  Pollard  Synthetic  Method" 
consists  of  audible  and  visible  synthesis.  It  begins  with  sounds, 
as  a  and  m,  prompting  the  pupil  to  find  these  sounds  first  in 
Nature  and  then  to  imitate  them.  It  groups  these  sounds  into 
"families,"  as  at,  am,  ack,  and  "keys,"  as  6,/,  I,  t  It  em- 
ploys a  story  called  the  "  Johnny  Story"  to  interest  the  learner. 
It  resorts  to  analogies,  association,  and  imagination,  as  when 
the  child  is  required  to  imitate  what  the  lamb,  rooster,  dog, 
etc.,  say.  It  builds  words,  visible  words,  pronounces  them, 
and  then  recognizes  these  uttered  words  as  names  of  objects, 
qualities,  or  actions.  It  aims  from  the  beginning  at  the  child's 
emancipation  in  pronunciation.  It  is  called  the  "Pollard'' 
method  after  Mrs.  Pollard,  the  author. 


READING  123 

The  method  claims  the  following  merits  :  (1)  "  It  gives  cer- 
tainty and  independence  in  the  recognition  of  words.  (2)  It 
gives  rational  scope  and  aim  to  diacritical  marks.  (3)  It  is  a 
complete  system  of  vocal  training.  (4)  It  promotes  distinct 
enunciation  and  perfect  articulation.  (5)  By  its  simple  and 
effective  rules,  it  secures  proper  pronunciation.  (6)  It  equips 
pupils  for  an  intelligent  use  of  the  dictionary.  (7)  It  provides 
for  the  child  those  mental  operations  which  are  most  agreeable 
to  him.  (8)  It  makes  good  spellers  by  its  constant  use  of  all 
the  letters  in  a  word."  Leading  educators  of  our  own  and 
other  States  afl&rm  that  experiments  prove  these  claims  to  be 
well  founded. 

The  Ward  Method.  The  "rational"  method,  as  Pro- 
fessor Ward,  of  Brooklyn,  the  originator  of  the  method,  calls 
it,  is  not  only  in  full  harmony  with  principles  of  education, 
but  also  meets  all  practical  difficulties  most  naturally.  The 
method  begins  with  a  well-chosen  list  of  words  used  by  Eng- 
lish-speaking children  before  coming  to  school.  By  means 
of  the  black-board  and  prepared  cards,  the  spoken  words 
with  which  the  method  begins  are  carefully  converted  into 
"  sight"  words  and  built  into  sentences.  "  Phonograms,"  i.e., 
sight  symbols  consisting  of  words,  such  as  mat,  cab,  etc. ;  parts 
of  words,  such  as  ing,  ight,  etc. ;  and  even  sentence  phono- 
grams are  taught  from  the  very  beginning.  By  "  blend,"  or 
synthesis  drills,  the  children  soon  acquire  the  power  to  pro- 
nounce new  words  independently  and  accurately.  The  Ward 
phonograms  look  so  much  like  many,  many  words  that  even 
the  dullest  child  becomes  a  fluent  reader  through  their  use, 
and  through  the  gradual  separation  of  phonograms  into  let- 
ters with  diacritical  marks  the  system  naturally  transfers  the 
reader  to  dictionary  authority  in  pronunciation.  The  Ward 
method,  like  the  Pollard  method,  requires  the  necessary 
books,  cards,  etc.,  and  trained  teachers,  but  the  training  is 
more  easily  acquired,  and  the  method  commends  itself  more 


124        PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

readily  to  the  approval  of  teachers,  parents,  and  boards  of 
school  directors.  While  the  Pollard  method  has  proved  its 
claims  in  many  instances,  the  results  attained  wherever  the 
Ward  method  has  been  fairlj  tried  are  simply  astonishing, 
and  warrant  its  general  adoption  in  English-speaking  schools. 

II.  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE  IN  READING. 

A  great  deal  of  work  in  orthoepy  and  elementary  elocution, 
remains  to  be  done  after  the  first  year  in  reading.  Presuma- 
bly the  child  has  now  mastered  the  vocabulary  of  an  ordinary 
first  reader,  and  has  acquired  the  inductive  habit  of  discover- 
ing principles  of  orthoepy  and  elocution  in  a  miniature  way, 
and  perhaps  he  has  also  acquired  the  supplementary  habit  of 
pronouncing  deductively  within  a  very  limited  vocabulary. 
It  is  evident,  however,  that  these  habits  must  be  strengthened, 
and  that  the  complexities  of  orthoepy  and  elocution  should  be 
gradually  mastered  until  the  pupil's  emancipation  in  reading 
has  been  accomplished.  This  course  should  extend  over  the 
second  and  third  year,  probably  over  the  fourth,  and  is  appro- 
priately termed  the  Intermediate  Course,  because  it  presup- 
poses an  Elementary  Course,  and  requires  a  Higher  Course  as 
a  supplement.  The  Intermediate  Coiu-se  may  be  outlined  as 
follows : 

The  Intermediate  Course  in  Reading. 

1.  Audible   and   visible   analysis  of  complex  representative 
words. 

2.  Visible  analysis  and  audible  synthesis  of  analogous  words. 

3.  Inductive  discovery  of  orthoepic  and  elocutionary  principles. 

4.  Language  lessons. 

6.   The  attainment  of  fluency  in  elocution. 
6.  Special  elocutionary  exercises. 

Articulation. 

Lisping. 

Stammering. 


READING  125 

7.  The  mental  phase  of  reading. 
Proper  methods  of  work. 
Lessons  graded  in  vocabulary  and  contents. 
Supplementary  reading. 
Development  of  literary  habits. 

Audible  and  Visible  Analysis  of  Complex  Representa- 
tive Words.  There  should  be  special  drills  on  Improper 
Diphthongs,  Ambiguous  Consonants,  Consonantal  Digraphs, 
Silent  Consonants,  Equivalent  Consonants,  Intermediate  Vow- 
els, Equivalent  Vowels,  and  Equivalent  Vowel  Digraphs. 
(See  "  Suitable  Vocabulary.") 

As  in  the  case  of  words  whose  structure  is  simple,  so  in  these 
complex  words,  there  must  be  audible  analysis  simultaneous 
with  visible  analysis  until  the  visible  representatives  become 
familiar  representatives.  The  word  move,  for  example,  must 
be  correctly  pronounced,  analyzed  into  its  component  sounds 
m  00  v,  written  on  the  black-board  correctly,  and  analyzed  into 
the  visible  representatives  move.  The  teacher  should  call 
especial  attention  to  the  fact  that  o  is  equivalent  to  oo,  and 
that  e  is  silent. 

Visible  Analysis  and  Audible  Synthesis  of  Analogous 
"Words.  The  study  of  analogous  words  by  visible  analysis 
and  simultaneous  audible  synthesis  should  follow  the  study  of 
representative  words  by  audible  and  simultaneous  visible  anal- 
ysis. The  words  reprove  and  improvement,  for  example, 
should  be  studied  by  visible  analysis  and  audible  synthesis 
after  the  word  move  has  been  studied  by  audible  and  visible 
analysis. 

Inductive  Discovery  of  Orthoepic  and  Elocutionary 
Principles.  Analogous  words  should  be  studied  by  conjoin- 
ing visible  analysis  and  audible  synthesis  until  the  orthoepic 
principle  becomes  evident.  It  is  in  this  inductive  way,  for 
example,  that  the  rule  of  x  is  to  be  discovered  and  stated  as 
follows  :  X  is  generally  hard  before  an  accented  syllable  begin- 


126         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ning  with  a  vowel  or  silent  h,  but  soft  before  accented  sylla- 
bles beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  exact,  exhort,  exclaim. 
The  principles  of  elocution  are  to  be  discovered  in  the  same 
way.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  develop  these  principles 
of  reading  into  practical  rules.  The  teacher  should  not  allow 
his  pupils  to  forget  what  they  have  learned.  (Seventh  and 
Eighth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  Exceptions  to  rules  must 
be  more  carefully  studied  in  drills  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Language  Lessons.  In  the  intermediate  course  of  read- 
ing, pupils  must  be  required  to  write  columns  of  words  selected 
from  the  lesson  according  to  special  directions,  mark  these 
words  according  to  orthoepic  rules,  copy  sentences,  commit 
sentences,  and  construct  original  sentences.  The  usual  re- 
quirements of  language  lessons  are  to  be  respected.  The 
pupil,  for  example,  should  attend  to  capitals,  commas,  periods, 
spelling,  penmanship,  neatness,  and  system. 

The  Attainment  of  Fluency  in  Elocution.  It  is  not  the 
function  of  common  schools  to  develop  specialists  in  elocution. 
But  that  fluency  which  consists  of  correct  and  rapid  articula- 
tion, rapid  recognition  and  ready  pronunciation,  together  with 
expressive  skill  in  emphasis,  movement,  pitch,  force,  and  qual- 
ity of  voice,  are  desirable  attainments  in  any  education.  The 
pupils  of  our  common  schools  should  in  due  time  and  for 
various  reasons  attain  to  considerable  ability  in  elocutionary 
fluency. 

Special  Elocutionary  Exercises.  The  following  special 
phonic  drills  will  be  found  useful.  The  diacritical  marks 
used  with  the  "  key"  letters  are  those  of  the  Worcester  Dic- 
tionary. 

Enunciation  Drills.  1.  a,  a,  a,  a,  a,  a,  a,  a,  a(6),  a(6),  a(e) ; 
at,  cellar,  acute,  ape,  dare,  fast,  far,  war,  was,  again,  quay. 

2.  6,  e,  e(i),  e,  e(a),  e,  e ;  rent,  the,  England,  here,  they, 
where,  term. 

3.  i,  i,  i,  i,  i(y),  i ;  pin,  police,  infinite,  girl,  onion,  kite. 


READING  127 

4.  o,  o,  o(u),  o,  o,  6,  o(u),  o(wu),  o ;  not,  some,  work,  omit, 
roll,  do,  could,  one,  occur. 

5.  ii,  u,  ii,  u(6),  u(i),  u,  u,  u,  u ;  up,  upon,  burn,  bury,  busy, 
push,  truth,  numerate,  unite. 

6.  y,  y,  y,  y ;  niyth,  chrysanthemum,  myrrh,  cry. 

7.  ew(u),  ew(u),  ew(6),  oo(u),  66,  oo(6),  oo(u),  6i,  oy,  oti, 
ou(6),  6w,  ow(o)  ;  few,  crew,  sew,  book,  spool,  floor,  blood,  oil, 
toy,  proud,  four,  cow,  flown. 

8.  a,  ai,  ay,  ^a,  6y,  6ig,  6igh ;  mate,  paid,  ray,  break,  whey, 
reign,  eighth. 

9.  are,  air,  ere,  eir,  6ar ;  spare,  stair,  there,  their,  wear. 

10.  a,  e ;  a  rat,  the  cat :  a(S),  6 ;  said,  head :  a(6),  6 ;  was, 
on  :  a,  o;  swarm,  north. 

11.  e,  ee,  ea,  ie;  mete,  screen,  speak,  fields:  S,  u(6) ;  fret, 
bury ;  ii,  o(ii)  ;  fur,  world  :  er,  ir,  yr ;  intersperse,  firm,  myrrh  : 
i,  u(i) ;  fit,  business. 

12.  1,  e(i),  o(i),  u,  y ;  bin,  been,  women,  busy  :  i,  y,  ye,  igh ; 
ivy,  spry,  lye,  fight :  i(y),  y  ;^ spaniel,  yell. 

13.  6,  a(6) ;  knot,  what :  O,  5,  6a,  6e,  6o,  6u,  6w,  e(6)w,  oh  ; 
O,  old,  goat,  toes,  floor,  four,  blow,  shew,  oh. 

14.  or,  ar;  form,  swarm:  6,  u;  sons,  funnel:  o(wu),  wil ; 
one,  wd  :  oo(u),  o(u),  u  ;  spook,  should,  full :  66,  6,  u,  ew(u) ; 
moon,  prove,  rule,  strew  :  oti,  o^  ;  loud,  bowing  :  6i,  6y ;  foil, 
destroy. 

15.  ii,  tie,  ui,  ew(ii) ;  tube,  dues,  juices,  few. 

16.  b,  p,  d,  t,  j,  g,  V,  w,  ch,  j,  ch,  s,  s,  x,  :s:,  ?,  k,  g ;  big, 
pick,  dull,  tin,  jug,  gill,  voyage,  winter,  church,  joke,  choke, 
fits,  sins,  extort,  exhort,  example,  kick,  gold. 

17.  c,  k,  q,  ck,  ch  ;  call,  kid,  quote,  quick,  chrism  :  g,  s,  z[g)  ; 
cement,  soon,  chintz  :  f,  gh(f ),  ph(f )  ;  fins,  laugh,  sphinx  :  j, 
g,  d(  j) ;  jug,  gill,  soldiers  :  i(y),  j(y),  y ;  Indian,  hallelujah, 
yonder  :  n(ng),  ng  ;  think,  strong  :  s,  z ;  is,  zinc ;  s(sh),  t,  c(sh), 
ph,  sh  ;  sugar,  faction,  social,  chaise,  shine  :  f(v),  v ;  of,  vows ; 
d(t),  t;  decked,  pit. 


128         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

18.  "He  talks  earnestly.  On  either  side  is  the  ocean. 
She  sought  shelter.  The  railroad  ran  directly  across  the  rapid 
river.  With  a  thick  thimble  Theresa  Thornton  thrusts  thirty- 
three  thready  through  the  thick  cloth." 

19.  Broth§,  truths,  moths,  triumphs,  facts,  asps,  fifths,  pre- 
cincts, filched,  gulped,  depth,  parts,  harps,  steps,  girl,  learn, 
nymph,  phial,  loiter,  rhythm,  mug,  gaiter,  wrist,  dagger,  stick. 

20.  The  above  exercises,  and  others  selected  from  various 
sources,  should  be  studied  very  carefully.  The  learner  should 
speak  very  slowly  at  first,  increasing  his  rate  of  utterance  as 
he  acquires  ability. 

Lisping.  Lisping  is  due  to  several  causes.  Among  others 
the  following  causes  are  common :  (1)  Association  with  some 
one  who  lisps ;  (2)  Childish  affectation ;  and  (3)  Defects  of  the 
organs  of  speech.  The  causes  must  be  removed  if  possible. 
When  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  causes,  as  in  organic  de- 
fects, the  pupil  must  be  trained  to  manage  his  organs  of  speech 
with  cultivated  tact. 

Stammering.  Various  causes  lead  to  stammering.  Among 
them  are  the  following  :  (1)  Exuberance  of  feeling ;  (2)  Hur- 
ried utterance ;  and  (3)  Defects  in  the  nervous  system.  If 
impulsiveness  or  heedlessness  be  the  cause,  the  cure  of  these 
faults  will  be  the  cure  of  the  stammering.  If  the  trouble  lies 
in  the  nervous  system,  hygienic  attention  may  be  the  sufBcient 
remedy.  In  all  cases  of  stammering  the  pupil  should  be 
trained  to  self-control.  In  other  words,  he  must  learn  to  sub- 
ordinate his  impulses,  and  to  overcome  his  nervousness.  The 
practical  rule  must  be :  Speak  slowly.  Tact  and  kindness 
will  do  much  in  these  unfortunate  cases. 

The  Mental  Phase  of  Reading".  Reading  in  its  ultimate 
sense  presupposes  and  requires  intelligence.  The  pupil  must 
be  taught  to  think  and  feel  what  he  reads.  In  that  event  he 
becomes  a  treasury  of  wisdom,  and  an  adept  in  expressing 
thoughts  and  feelings  when  he  reads  to  others.     The  develop- 


READING  129 

ment  of  intelligence  in  reading  requires :  (1)  Proper  Methods 
of  Work ;  (2)  Lessons  Graded  in  Vocabulary  and  Contents ; 
(3)  Supplementary  Reading;  and  (4)  The  Development  of 
Literary  Habits. 

Proper  Methods  of  Worh.  (Seventh  Principle  of  Instruc- 
tion.) The  teacher  must  insist  on  study.  The  pupil  must 
know  the  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  the  words  in  the  les- 
son^ must  read  the  lesson  until  he  can  do  it  rapidly  and  cor- 
rectly, and  he  must  try  to  think  and  feel  the  lesson.  In  the 
recitation  the  teacher  should  ask  many  questions,  thus  stimu- 
lating previous  study.  He  should  also  require  the  pupils  to 
tell  the  story  of  the  lesson,  sometimes  before  and  sometimes 
after  the  reading.  He  may  even  urge  pupils  to  write  the 
story  of  the  lesson  in  their  own  words,  before  they  come  to 
recite. 

Lessons  Graded  in  Vocabulary  and  Contents.  The  lessons 
in  reading,  whether  planned  by  the  teacher,  as  in  his  intro- 
ductory work,  or  found  in  readers,  should  be  adapted  to  the 
stages  of  the  pupil's  mental  development.  (Third,  Sixth,  and 
Seventh  Principles  of  Instruction.)  The  grading  of  lessons 
should  therefore  be  perceptive,  conceptive,  and  reflective.  In 
other  words,  the  vocabulary  and  contents  of  reading  lessons 
should  be  mostly  perceptive  at  first,  then  mostly  conceptive, 
and  finally  also  reflective. 

Supplementary  Reading.  There  should  be  supplementary 
readers  in  every  school-room.  At  appropriate  times  it  should 
be  required  of  pupils  to  read  at  sight,  or  soon  after  sight,  some 
paragraph  or  page  that  ranks  in  difliculty  with  that  of  his 
previous  lessons.  This  requirement,  being  a  variation  from 
the  usual  text,  will  stimulate  interest,  and  cultivate  habits  of 
reading.  Books  on  geography,  travels,  biography,  history, 
physiology,  etc.,  may  also  be  used  as  supplementary  reading. 
(Fourth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

The  Development  of  Literary  Habits.     In  due  time   the 

9 


130         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

pupils  of  our  common  schools  should  be  urged  to  read  such 
English  classics  as  are  suited  to  their  age  and  progress.  The 
teacher  should  strive  to  cultivate  true  ideals  in  literary  habits. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  few  of  our  boys  and  girls  acquire 
the  habit  of  reading  good  books.  In  order  to  induce  and 
establish  this  habit  there  should  be  a  library  of  suitable  books 
in  every  school.  This  library  should,  at  least  in  part,  be  col- 
lected by  the  efforts  of  the  pupils,  as  directed  by  the  teacher, 
in  order  to  cultivate  appreciation  for  books  and  literary  equip- 
ments. If  possible,  every  school  room  should  be  supplied 
with  a  good  periodical  and  newspaper. 

III.  IMPORTANCE  OF  READING. 

Reading,  as  everybody  who  thinks  about  it  must  see,  is  a 
most  effective  means  of  culture  and  instruction. 

Culture  Value  of  Reading.  Reading  is  a  stimulus  to 
thought,  and  a  help  in  the  interpretation  of  the  world  in 
which  we  live.  (See  Rosenkranz.)  It  is  through  reading  that 
we  can  think  the  thoughts  of  the  "  masters"  after  them,  and 
that,  through  a  train  of  corresponding  feelings  and  purposes, 
we  may  live  at  least  in  part  in  their  mental  world.  Thus  it 
follows  that  reading  becomes  a  mode  of  exercising  the  mind 
in  all  its  possibilities. 

Instruction  Value  of  Reading.  Reading  is  the  key  to  a 
great  deal  of  knowledge  at  which  the  mind  without  such 
means  would  not,  and  in  many  cases  could  not,  arrive.  The 
practical,  aesthetic,  moral,  and  religious  importance  of  such 
knowledge,  makes  reading  the  subject  jpar  excellence  in  the 
acquisition  of  an  education,  and  in  the  great  commerce  of  ideas 
of  the  human  race. 

Training  of  Teachers  of  Reading.  In  order  to  do  ideal 
work  in  teaching  reading,  the  teacher  must  evidently  be  a 
good  reader  in  its  physical  and  mental  phases.  A  pedagogical 
knowledge  of  reading  is  equally  important  to  success. 


WRITING  131 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

WEITING. 

The  pedagogics  of  writing  is  concerned  with  two  topics : 
(1)  The  Nature  of  Writing ;  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Writing. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  ^WHITING. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject in  hand  it  will  obviously  be  necessary  to  study  the  follow- 
ing topics :  (1)  The  Physical  Act  of  Writing ;  (2)  The  Psy- 
chology of  Writing ;  (3)  The  Structure  of  Script ;  (4)  Properties 
of  Writing ;  and  (5)  The  History  of  Writing. 

The  Physical  Act  of  "Writing-.  The  physical  act  of 
writing  presupposes  appropriate  positions  of  the  body,  and 
consists  of  various  movements  of  the  fingers,  hand,  and  arm. 
(1)  There  is  some  room  for  choice  as  to  the  position  of  the 
body  in  writing ;  we  may  assume  the  "  front,"  "  right,"  or 
"  left"  position  at  the  desk.  The  sitting  posture  is  generally 
preferred  to  the  standing  posture,  the  latter  serving  as  a  mode 
of  relief.  (2)  The  movements  of  the  fingers,  hand,  and  arm, 
are  muscular  movements  of  bone-levers  on  hinge-joints,  wrist- 
joints,  and  ball-and-socket-joints. 

The  Psychology  of  Writing".  The  learner  becomes  ac- 
quainted with  the  positions,  movements,  and  characters,  by 
observation;  he  discovers  the  general  truths  of  writing  by 
induction,  and  reduces  them  to  rules  of  practice  by  deduction. 
The  most  important  feature  of  writing  is  the  subjection  of  the 
physical  organism  to  the  mind.  The  various  positions  and 
movements  in  writing  require  very  strict  attention  at  first. 
In  time  these  movements  become  habits,  and  require  only  a 
minimum  of  voluntary  effort. 


132         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Structure  of  Script.  The  characters,  or  letters,  of 
writing  are  composite  structures  consisting  of  simple  and  com- 
plex lines. 

Species  of  Letters.  The  script  characters  which  are  em- 
ployed to  represent  the  elementary  sounds  of  our  language,  are 
termed  Letters.  The  two  species  of  script  letters  in  vogue  are 
the  small  and  the  capital  letters.  Small  letters  are  employed 
in  the  body  of  words,  while  capitals  denote  distinctions,  as  in 
proper  names  or  head-lines. 

The  Form-Elements  of  Script.  Script  letters  are  combina- 
tions of  form-elements,  i.e.,  combinations  of  straight  lines, 
angles,  and  curves.  (1)  The  form-elements  of  the  various 
systems  of  script  are  comparatively  few.  Spencer,  for  exam- 
ple, employs  only  seven  principles,  the  straight  line  (  |  ),  the 
right  curve  (— ^),  the  left  curve  (^— ),  the  loop  (/),  the  direct 
oval  (0),  the  reversed  oval  (q),  and  the  capital  stem  (o/)-  The 
height,  width,  and  parts,  of  every  letter  are  definite  quantities 
according  to  the  system  adopted.  (2)  The  "  down-stroke"  of 
letters  is  probably  the  most  important  element  of  any  system 
of  script,  since  upon  its  direction  depend,  as  statistics  show, 
both  legibility  and  rapidity  in  writing,  as  well  as  the  physical 
welfare  of  the  writer.  In  Spencer's  slanting  system  the  down- 
stroke  meets  the  writing-line  at  an  angle  of  52  degrees,  and 
determines  the  general  slope  of  the  letters.  In  the  various 
vertical  systems  the  down-stroke  meets  the  writing-line  at 
right  angles,  and  determines  the  general  character  of  the  let- 
ters. The  connecting  lines  are  next  in  importance,  since  upon 
them,  too,  depend  both  legibility  and  rapidity  in  writing,  as 
well  as  the  beauty  of  the  finished  letters.  In  Spencer's  system 
the  connecting  lines  meet  the  writing-line  at  an  angle  of  30 
degrees,  while  in  vertical  writing  the  angle  must  be  larger  to 
add  to  the  general  effect  of  the  vertical  idea.  The  actual  slope 
of  connecting  lines  is  not  quite  the  same  in  all  vertical  sys- 
tems, either  to  shorten  connective  curves  in  the  interest  of 


WRITING  133 

rapidity,  or  to  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  finished  letters.  The 
initial  and  the  terminal  strokes  are  also  of  importance  in  any 
system  of  writing,  since  economy  of  space  and  time  as  well  as 
the  beauty  of  the  finished  letters  must  depend  on  these  strokes. 

Desirable  Properties  of  Writing-.  "  Writing  is  a  secon- 
dary power  of  speech,  and  they  who  cannot  write  are  in  part 
dumb."  In  other  words,  writing  is  a  species  of  language.  As 
a  mode  of  language,  writing  should  be  legible,  accurate,  rapid, 
and  beautiful,  and  the  physical  act  should  not  impair  the 
health  of  the  writer.  Right  habits  should,  therefore,  be  devel- 
oped from  the  beginning. 

Legibility.  "  Scrawls  that  cannot  be  read  may  be  compared 
to  talking  that  cannot  be  understood ;  and  writing  difficult  to 
decipher,  to  stammering  speech."  Legibility  is  also  important 
to  the  health  of  the  reader's  eyes.  It  is  accordingly  the  quality 
preeminent  from  first  to  last. 

Accuracy.  All  the  form-elements  required  by  the  adopted 
system  of  writing  should  be  present  in  perfection  in  script  let- 
ters. Apart  from  the  bad  moral  efiect  of  carelessness  in  these 
respects,  inaccurate  letters  are  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  others, 
so  that  inaccurate  writing  is  more  or  less  illegible.  Imitative 
accuracy  will  do  at  first ;  theoretic  accuracy  should  follow. 

Rapidity.  Beginners  should  write  slowly,  so  that  the  hand 
may  become  the  servant  of  the  will.  The  moral  development 
of  the  writer  will  be  promoted  by  such  exercises.  The  move- 
ments in  writing  should,  however,  become  more  and  more 
rapid  in  the  interests  of  economy,  but  always  in  subordination 
to  the  will  until  perfect  habit  develops. 

Beauty.  Legibility,  accuracy,  and  rapidity  are  requirements 
of  utility.  The  union  of  the  useful  and  beautiful  is  universally 
desirable.  Taste  for  artistic  penmanship  develops  into  taste 
for  art  in  general,  and  stimulates  the  finer  nature  of  the  writer. 

The  Requirements  of  Hygiene.  (1)  The  position  of  the  body 
in  writing,  and  the  movements  of  the  fingers,  etc.,  should  be 


134         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  very  best.  Right  habits  should  be  developed  from  the  be- 
ginning. (2)  That  system  of  writing  which  is  best  for  the  eyes 
of  readers  should,  all  other  things  being  equal,  be  adopted  by 
our  schools. 

The  History  of  Writing-.  There  are  two  subjects  to  study 
in  this  connection  :  (1)  The  Successive  Tendencies  in  Writing ; 
and  (2)  The  Claims  of  the  Tendencies. 

The  Tendencies  in  Penmanship.  The  tendency  to  write  up- 
right letters  was  the  earliest  tendency  in  the  history  of  writing. 
"  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  that 
the  sloping  or  Italian  style  was  invented  by  Aldus  Manutius 
of  Venice.  It  soon  became  a  fashionable  fad  and  spread  rap- 
idly over  all  Europe.  Probably  th'e  best  reason  for  this  was 
that  writing  in  those  days  was  to  a  great  extent  in  the  hands 
of  professional  scribes,  and,  as  the  slanting  style  was  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  development  of  the  new  art  of  flourishing,  it 
soon  supplanted  the  old  vertical  mode."  "  In  the  course  of 
time,  when  education  became  the  common  possession  of  all, 
slanting  writing  retained  its  supremacy  unchallenged.  No 
attempts  were  made  to  return  to  vertical  penmanship  until  a 
few  years  ago,  when  an  investigation  of  the  causes  of  curvature 
of  the  spine  and  imperfect  vision  so  common  in  school-children 
was  instituted  in  Germany,  with  the  result  that  eminent  medi- 
cal authorities  attributed  the  greater  part  of  the  evil  to  the 
position  of  the  body  and  eyes  necessary  in  writing  a  slanting 
hand.  At  about  the  same  time  teachers  began  to  awake  to 
the  fact  that  the  writing  of  their  schools  was  anything  but 
satisfactory."  "  With  the  assurance  from  the  medical  profes- 
sion that  slanting  penmanship  produces  deformity  and  imper- 
fect vision,  and  from  educational  experts  that  vertical  penman- 
ship is  far  superior  to  sloping,  it  would  appear  that  vertical 
writing  is  to  be  the  writing  of  the  future.  It  has  already 
been  extensively  introduced  on  the  Continent  and  in  England, 
and  has  recently  aroused  absorbing  interest  in  this  country." 


WRITING  135 

The  Merits  of  Vertical  Writing.  The  advantages  of  vertical 
writing  are  as  follows  :  (1)  It  is  better  for  the  health  of  pupils. 
The  required  position  is  natural  and  easy,  since  the  back  must 
be  straight  and  square,  and  both  eyes  must  be  exercised  equally. 

(2)  Vertical  writing  is  more  legible,  as  can  be  shown  by  a 
diagram  of  upright  and  slanting  lines.  (See  Merrill's  Verti- 
cal Penmanship.)  This  claim  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that 
books  are  commonly  printed  not  in  Italic,  but  in  plain,  up- 
right letters.  The  fact  that  English  civil-service  examina- 
tions ask  for  upright  writing  is  an  additional  proof. 

(3)  Vertical  writing  is  more  rapid.  There  is  less  distance 
for  the  pen  to  travel  in  making  vertical  strokes  than  in  making 
slanting  strokes  of  the  sanie  height.  The  difference  between 
the  down-strokes  of  vertical  penmanship  and  those  of  slant- 
ing penmanship  is  as  great  as  that  between  the  perpendicular 
and  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right  angled  triangle.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  considerable  gain  of  time  in  vertical  writing. 
Telegraph  receiving  operators  avail  themselves  of  this  advan- 
tage almost  unconsciously. 

(4)  Vertical  writing  is  more  economical.  Its  shorter  down- 
strokes  save  time  and  paper.  The  greater  legibility  of  verti- 
cal writing,  as  well  as  its  greater  adaptability  to  learners,  must 
also  be  regarded  as  matters  of  economy. 

(5)  Vertical  writing  is  easier  to  teach  and  learn.  The  po- 
sitions of  the  body,  hands,  and  eyes  are  perfectly  natural  to 
the  child,  and  consequently  do  not  have  to  be  painfully  incul- 
cated. It  is  unnatural  for  a  child  to  write  with  slanting 
down-strokes.  Hence  it  will  cost  both  teacher  and  pupil 
many  hours  of  needless  labor  to  attain  uniformity  in  these 
strokes.  Statistics  show  that  children  have  better  success  in 
the  vertical  efforts,  and  that  this  success  is  a  constant  stimulus 
to  their  efforts. 

The  Merits  of  Slanting  Writing.  There  are  several  things 
to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  slanting  system  of  writing :  (1)  The 


136         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

possibility  of  remarkable  beauty  belongs  exclusively  to  slant- 
ing writing.  The  history  of  slanting  penmanship  is  incontro- 
vertible evidence  on  this  point.  There  is  an  irresistible  charm 
in  the  gracful  poise  of  the  classical  slant.  The  vertical  letter 
is  stiff  in  comparison.  If  the  future  history  of  penmanship 
is  to  be  that  of  a  fine  art,  as  the  rapid  adoption  of  short-hand 
seems  to  indicate,  the  slanting  system  deserves  a  place  in 
special  training. 

(3)  The  transition  of  schools  to  the  vertical  system  is  diffi- 
cult. The  amount  of  time  and  labor  needed  to  break  higher 
grade  pupils  into  the  new  habit,  is  an  important  consideration. 
Then,  too,  teachers  need  special  training  in  vertical  penman- 
ship in  order  to  do  good  work.  These  objections  have,  how- 
ever, been  satisfactorily  met  in  hundreds  of  schools,  and  the 
probability  is  that  the  change  will  rapidly  become  universal. 

B.  INSTRUCTION   IN   WRITING. 

The  study  of  the  nature  of  writing  suggests  the  following 
topics  for  consideration  :  (1)  Courses  of  Writing ;  (2)  Methods 
of  Instruction ;  and  (3)  The  Imj^ortance  of  Writing. 

Courses  of  Writing-.  In  obedience  to  the  law  of  the  pupil's 
natural  development,  and  in  accordance  with  the  demands  of 
life,  there  should  be  three  courses  in  writing :  (1)  The  Ele- 
mentary Course ;  (2)  The  Intermediate  Course ;  and  (3)  The 
Higher  Course.  The  elementary  course  is  designed  to  develop 
mechanical  ability  ;  the  intermediate  course,  to  correct  and  per- 
fect practical  ability  by  adding  theory ;  the  higher  course,  to 
develop  special  tastes,  or  to  fit  for  special  vocations.  (See 
Principles  of  Instruction.)  The  common  school  owes  her 
pupils  a  training  in  the  first  two  courses ;  the  higher  course 
belongs  to  special  schools,  such  as  business  colleges,  etc.  The 
elementary  course  should  be  covered  in  two  or  three  years ; 
the  intermediate  course,  in  from  four  to  eight  years,  the  time  to 
be  determined  by  circumstances.     The  end  in  view  in  the  ele- 


WRITING  137 

mentary  course  is  imitative  skill ;  in  the  intermediate  course 
theory  ;  and  in  the  higher  course  excellence.  The  designs  are 
in  harmony  with  the  stages  of  possibility  in  pupils  as  ascer- 
tained by  experiments,  and  they  are  in  accord  with  the  needs 
of  life. 

I.  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

The  questions  to  be  considered  under  this  heading  are  two  : 

(1)  The  Tasks  of  the  Elementary  Course,  and  (2)  The  Methods 
of  Elementary  Lessons. 

The  Tasks  of  the  Elementary  Course.  The  first  lessons 
in  writing  are  to  be  given  in  connection  with  reading,  spelling, 
language  lessons,  etc.  (1)  The  pupil  must  be  required  to  copy 
words.  (2)  There  must  be  supplementary  lessons  on  separate 
letters.  (3)  Right  habits  of  position,  movement,  spacing,  etc., 
must  be  developed  from  the  beginning. 

The  Methods  of  Elementary  Lessons.  In  the  elemen- 
tary exercises  of  penmanship,  the  pupil  must  be  required  to 
observe  and  copy.  (1)  The  little  words  that  are  read  in  ele- 
mentary language  lessons,  should  be  correctly  written  on  the 
board  in  sight  of  the  pupils.  The  pupil  should  be  required 
to  observe  what  the  teacher  does,  and  then  try  to  write  the 
word  on  the  slate.  At  first  it  may  be  necessary  to  guide  the 
little  hands,  but  they  will  soon  learn  to  trace  legible  copies. 

(2)  As  soon  as  the  pupils  can  write  words  legibly,  lessons  on 
letters  should  begin.  The  small  letters  should  of  course  be 
taken  up  first,  and  in  the  order  of  their  increasing  diffi- 
culty. (See  this  order,  pages  141  and  142.)  The  lessons  on 
capital  letters  may  begin  before  all  the  small  letters  have  been 
taught,  but  also  in  their  order  of  difficulty.  The  letter  to  be 
taught  should  be  written  several  times  on  the  board,  larger  at 
first  and  smaller  afterwards,  the  pupils  observing  what  the 
teacher  does,  and  then  copying  the  letters  on  their  slate,  or  on 
the  board.     A  great  deal  of  such  practice  can  be  readily  com- 


138         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

bined  with  reading  lessons.  Children  should  sometimes  be 
requested  to  write  on  paper,  but  the  pen  and  the  copy-book  are 
hardly  appropriate  before  the  third  year  of  school.  (3)  Right 
habits  of  position,  movement,  spacing,  slanting,  etc.,  are  best 
taught  at  first  by  example.  In  other  words,  the  position, 
movement,  etc.,  must  be  illustrated  by  the  teacher  and  copied 
by  the  pupil.  Failures  are  best  corrected  by  kindly  sugges- 
tion. The  teacher  must  see  to  it  that  children  do  not  write 
too  fast,  and  that  they  do  neat  work.  He  should,  however,  be 
thoroughly  judicious  in  pointing  out  mistakes  and  imperfec- 
tions, never  losing  his  temper  or  hurting  the  feelings  of  pupils. 

II.  THE  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

The  Tasks  of  the  Intermediate  Course.  The  lessons  of 
the  intermediate  course  in  penmanship  should  begin  the  third 
or  fourth  year  of  school,  and  should  combine  theory  and  prac- 
tice. The  following  subjects  should  be  mastered  in  their  order  : 
(1)  Positions  at  Desk,  (2)  Holding  the  Pen,  (3)  Finger  Move- 
ment, (4)  Fore-arm  Movement,  (5)  Combined  Movement,  (6) 
Whole-Arm  Movement,  (7)  Lines,  (8)  The  Form-Elements, 
(9)  Small  Letters,  (10)  Capital  Letters,  (11)  Spacing,  (12) 
Shading,  and  (13)  Arabic  Figures. 

The  Methods  of  Intermediate  Lessons.  (1)  In  the  in- 
termediate exercises  of  penmanship,  the  pupil  needs  practice 
paper,  a  copy-book  suited  to  his  grade,  a  good  pen,  good  ink, 
and  a  suitable  desk.  (2)  It  is  convenient,  and  at  the  same 
time  effective,  to  teach  a  whole  class  at  once.  Two,  or,  in 
some  cases,  three  classes  are  enough  for  any  school.  (3)  In 
this  course  accuracy  and  beauty  are  the  right  ideals,  and  great 
effort  should  be  put  forth  to  develop  taste  for  these  ideals.  (4) 
There  should  be  a  system  of  signals,  and  everything  should  be 
done  in  the  most  orderly  way.  The  recitation  may  begin  with 
(1)  Position  at  Desk,  (2)  Arrange  Books,  (3)  Find  Copy  and 
Adjust  Arms,  (4)  Open  Inkstands,  (5)  Take  Pens.     The  reci- 


WRITING  139 

tation  may  close  with  (1)  Wipe  Pens,  (2)  Front  Position,  (3) 
Pass  Pens,  (4)  Pass  Books,  (5)  Close  Inkstands.  (See  "The- 
ory of  Spencerian  Penmanship.") 

Position  at  Desk.  (1)  The  position  for  writing  should  be  a 
convenient  one,  allowing  the  easy  action  of  the  right  arm 
and  hand.  In  sitting  at  a  desk  or  table  there  is  little  choice 
between  what  are  known  as  the  "Left-side,"  "Front,"  "Right- 
oblique,"  or  "  Right-side"  positions.  They  are  all  practised 
by  writers ;  but  it  is  well  for  the  sake  of  order  and  uniformity 
in  a  class  that  all  the  pupils  should  observe  the  same  position. 
Whichever  method  is  adopted,  those  who  do  not  Avish  to  be- 
come hollow-chested  or  round-shouldered,  should  learn  to  sit 
easily  upright,  and  keep  the  shoulders  square. 

(2)  The  "  Front"  position  is  most  appropriate  in  classes. 
Pupils  should  be  required  to  "  Sit  directly  facing  the  desk, 
near  to  it,  without  leaning  against  it,  with  the  feet  level  on 
the  floor,  and  the  fore  arms  resting  lightly  on  the  desk  in  front 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Let  the  right  arm  rest  lightly 
on  the  muscles  forward  of  the  elbow — keep  the  wrist  above 
the  paper,  and  rest  the  hand  lightly  on  the  nails  of  the  third 
and  fourth  fingers,  which  should  touch  the  paper  directly 
under  the  palm.  Adjust  the  book  so  that  the  right  arm  will 
be  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  on  which  you  are  to  write. 
Hold  the  book  in  place  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand." 

Holding  the  Pen.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  "  Take  the 
pen  between  the  first  and  second  fingers  and  the  thumb,  ob- 
serving, 1st,  that  it  crosses  the  second  finger  on  the  corner  of 
the  nail ;  2d,  that  it  crosses  the  fore-finger  forward  of  the 
knuckles ;  3d,  that  the  end  of  the  thumb  touches  the  holder 
opposite  the  lower  joint  of  the  fore-finger ;  4th,  that  the  top 
of  the  holder  points  toward  the  right  shoulder  ;  5th,  that  the 
wrist  is  above  the  paper ;  6th,  that  the  point  of  the  pen  comes 
squarely  to  the  paper." 

Finger  Movement.     (1)  The  action  of  the  first  and  second 


140         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

fingers  and  thumb,  is  termed  the  "  Finger  Movement"  ;  it  is 
used  chiefly  in  the  upward  and  downward  strokes.  (2)  Pupils 
should  be  required  to  make  this  movement  deliberately,  count- 
ing 1,  2,  1,  2,  etc.,  or  saying  upward,  downward,  etc. 

Fore-arm  Movement.  (1)  "  The  Fore-arm  Movement  con- 
sists in  the  action  of  the  fore-arm  upon  its  muscular  rest  near 
the  elbow;  the  hand  gliding  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers.  It  may  be  employed  in  making  strokes  in  any 
direction,  but  is  especially  adapted  to  carrying  the  pen  right- 
ward,  and  leftward,  across  the  paper,  and  is  most  efficient  in 
combination  with  the  Finger  Movement." 

(2)  Pupils  should  be  required  to  practise  this  movement  in 
combination  with  the  finger  movement  until  the  complex  pro- 
cess becomes  almost  automatic.  The  teacher  must  be  able  to 
show  the  pupil  what  to  do,  and  should  insist  on  right  habit. 

Combined  Movement.  (1)  "  The  Combined  Movement  con- 
sists in  the  united  action  of  the  fore- arm,  hand,  and  fingers, 
the  fore-arm  acting  on  its  muscular  rest  as  a  centre,  and 
sliding  the  hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers, 
while  the  first  and  second  fingers  and  thumb  extend  and  con- 
tract in  forming  upv/ard  and  downward  strokes." 

(2)  "  This  movement  answers  the  requirements  of  business 
better  than  any  other  :  it  combines  the  free  untiring  sweep 
of  the  fore-arm,  with  the  delicate  shaping  powers  of  the  fingers, 
securing  ease  and  accuracy." 

(3)  The  teacher  should  carefully  study  this  movement  as 
explained  in  special  text-books,  in  order  that  he  may  under- 
stand what  he  tries  to  teach.  He  should  illustrate  the  move-- 
ment  again  and  again,  until  all  in  the  class  can  make  the 
movement. 

Whole-arm  Movement.  (1)  "  The  Whole-arm  Movement 
consists  in  the  use  of  the  whole  arm  from  the  shoulder,  the 
elbow  being  raised  slightly  from  the  desk,  and  the  hand 
sliding  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers." 


WKITING  141 

(2)  "  The  capitals  ^   C^  ^    O^  etc.^  may  be  traced 

with  the  whole-arm  movement,  and  the  strokes  regulated  by 
counting,  as  indicated  by  figures  in  copy-books.  This  move- 
ment is  mainly  used  for  striking  large  capitals.  Its  practice  is 
highly  beneficial,  as  it  brings  into  free  action  all  the  muscles 
from  shoulder  to  fingers." 

Form  Lessons.  Preparatory  to  lessons  on  the  structure  of 
the  various  letters,  there  should  be  special  lessons  on  lines, 
angles,  etc.  (1)  Pupils  should  be  required  to  make  and  de- 
scribe a  line,  a  straight  line,  a  curve  line,  a  right  curve,  a  left 
curve,  a  horizontal  line,  a  vertical  line,  a  slanting  or  oblique 
line,  and  parallel  lines. 

(2)  Pupils  in  writing  must  be  taught  what  an  angle  is,  and 
how  to  measure  it  in  degrees  of  a  circle.  Teachers  of  slant- 
ing penmanship  must  make  their  classes  familiar  with  the 
angle  of  52  degrees,  or  Spencer's  Main  Slant,  and  with  the 
angle  of  30  degrees,  or  Spencer's  Connective  Slant.  Teach- 
ers of  vertical  penmanship  must  see  to  it  that  the  pupils  know 
the  right  angle. 

(3)  The  teacher  must  take  pains  to  show  the  pupils  how  to 
combine  strokes  in  forming  letters  ;  how  to  make  the  "  short 
turn,"  the  "  oval  turn,"  the  "  loop,"  the  "  angular  turn,"  the 
"  direct  oval,"  the  "  reversed  oval,"  etc. 

Fwm  Elements.  The  pupil  of  any  system  must  be  taught  to 
make  and  describe  the  constituent  parts  of  letters,  and  to  ana-, 
lyze  letters,  small  and  capital,  into  these  elements. 

The  Small  Letters.  The  small  letters  should  be  taken  up  in 
the  following  order :  (1)  The  thirteen  "  short"  letters,  namely, 

i^],  i^,  W-,  'ft',  m,  -v-,  a;,  o-,  a,  e,  c,  i^,  <S. 

(2)  The  four  "  semi-extended"  (two  spaces)  letters,  namely, 
/,  e/,  d,  a.  (3)  The  nine  "  extended,"  or  loop  letters  (three 
spaces),  namely,  J,  J,  /,  ^^;  ////  p  /• 


142         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

These  letters  should  be  studied,  practised,  and  reviewed, 
until  each  one  becomes  perfect. 

The  Capital  Letters.  The  capital  letters  should  be  taken 
up  in  the  following  order :  (1)  The  four  "  Fifth  Principle" 

letters,  namely,  (^,  8,  Q,  '^.  (2)  The  nine  "Sixth  Prin- 
ciple" letters,  namely,  %,  QtM.;^.(^,  Q{,  ^.  c/^. 
(3)  The  thirteen  "  Seventh  Principle"  letters,  namely,  ^-^^  (;^ 

C^.S-,:^,!:^,  J^  -ef,  ^.  j:^,  9,  ^,  ^. 

These  letters,  too,  must  be  studied,  practised,  and  reviewed 
until  they  are  mastered. 

Spacing.  The  teacher  must  see  to  it  as  much  as  possible 
that  the  space  between  letters,  words,  and  sentences,  is  under- 
stood and  respected  by  pupils.  The  teacher  is  referred  to  the 
copy-book  explanations. 

Shading.  Beginners  in  penmanship  should  not  be  taught 
"shading."  When  pupils  have  acquired  artistic  skill  in 
writing  letters  without  shading,  it  is  time  enough  to  begin 
lessons  on  that  subject.  The  five  species  of  shading  as  seen  in 
the  letters  /,  d,  *,  fj  and  (y^  should  of  course  in  due  time 
be  taught. 

Arabic  Figures.     Lessons  on  the  Arabic  figures 

/,   ^,  3,  4,  5,   6,  /,  <$,  ^,  0, 

should  be  given  in  connection  with  the  small  letters,  and  accu- 
racy as  well  as  neatness  should  be  developed  into  habits. 

III.  HIGHER  COURSES  IN  PENMANSHIP. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  not  the  duty  of  the  common  school  to 
oifer  higher,  or  special,  courses  in  penmanship,  the  details  of 
instruction  in  such  courses  need  not  be  considered  in  this 
treatise.  The  special  courses  in  penmanship  offered  in  special 
schools  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Business  Penmanship  ;  (2)  Ladies' 


WRITING  143 

Penmanship  ;  and  (3)  Ornamental  Penmanship.  The  special 
requirements  of  business,  etiquette,  and  decorative  art,  deter- 
mine the  tasks  and  methods  of  such  courses.  (See  the  Ninth 
Principle  of  Instruction.) 

IV.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  PENMANSHIP. 

The  unsightly,  hurried  scrawls  that  are  so  common  in  all 
species  of  writing,  are  greatly  to  be  deplored.  Such  writing  is 
to  be  deplored  because :  (1)  The  discipline  of  penmanship  has 
a  moral  and  practical  radius,  and  (2)  Artistic  penmanship  is  a 
desirable  instrument  in  business  and  social  papers. 

The  Discipline  of  Penmanship.  The  habits  and  tastes 
cultivated  in  the  efforts  to  master  penmanship,  assert  them- 
selves as  habits  and  tastes  in  the  moral  and  practical  life  of 
pupils.  In  other  words,  the  habits  of  self-control,  attention, 
accuracy,  and  artistic  finish,  which  pupils  must  cultivate  in 
order  to  master  penmanship,  are  likely  to  become  their  habits 
and  tastes  in  all  activities. 

The  Desirability  of  Artistic  Penmanship.  Except  in 
cases  of  deliberate  acting,  most  persons  photograph  their  ordi- 
nary character  in  their  handwriting.  This  fact  has  important 
consequences.  (1)  Employers  look  for  self-poise,  energy, 
taste,  and  manliness,  in  their  employees.  These  characteris- 
tics, and  their  opposites,  as  just  pointed  out,  are  often  de- 
tected in  the  letters  of  applicants  for  positions,  and  the  em- 
ployer makes  up  his  mind  accordingly.  School  directors,  for 
example,  may  not  themselves  be  able  to  write  well,  but  many 
of  them  know  how  important  it  is  that  the  teacher  of  their 
,  children  should  write  a  good  hand,  and,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  they  prefer  the  good  penman. 

(2)  What  is  true  of  business  intercourse  is  equally  true  of 
written  social  intercourse.  We  think  better  of  our  corre- 
spondents when  they  write  a  legible  and  artistic  hand.  This 
preference  seems  to  rest  on  the  belief,  though  it  may  never 


144         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

have  been  put  in  so  many  words,  that  our  friends  are  likely 
to  resemble  their  handwriting  in  other  respects  and  in  their 
relations  to  us. 

The  Requisite  Training  for  Teachers  of  Penmanship. 
It  is  obviously  the  duty  of  the  common  school  to  cultivate 
penmanship  both  for  its  disciplinary  and  its  practical  worth. 
Teachers  have  no  moral  right  to  neglect  either  their  own  hand- 
writing or  that  of  their  pupils.  The  consequences  of  such 
neglect  are  too  difficult  to  correct,  and  too  far-reaching  in  the 
pupil's  career.  It  is  requisite,  therefore,  that  teachers  under- 
stand (1)  The  theory  of  penmanship,  and  (2)  The  theory  of 
teaching  penmanship.  In  addition  to  such  understanding,  it 
is  necessary  that  teachers  have  artistic  ability  in  penmanship. 
Indeed,  a  knowledge  of  higher  courses  in  penmanship,  and 
training  in  each  of  these  courses,  so  far  as  possible,  develops 
an  appreciation  for  the  art  of  penmanship,  and  leads  to  an 
ability  in  it,  that  fit  teachers  to  work  from  better  standpoints 
and  to  much  better  advantage.  The  Normal  Schools  espe- 
cially owe  it  to  the  public  schools  to  send  out  teachers  that  are 
able  to  write  and  to  teach  writing. 


SPELLING  145 


CHAPTEE    V. 

SPELLING. 

The  pedagogics  of  spelling  is  concerned  with  (1)  The 
Nature  of  Spelling,  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Spelling. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  SPELLING. 

It  will  serve  our  purpose  to  study  (1)  The  History  of  Eng- 
lish Orthography,  (2)  The  Physical  Structure  of  English  Words, 
and  (3)  The  Psychology  of  Spelling. 

The  History  of  English  Orthography.  Among  the 
things  that  have  shaped  our  orthography  are  (1)  The  Ori- 
gin of  the  Alphabet,  (2)  The  Norman  Conquest  of  Eng- 
land, (3)  The  Practice  of  Authors  and  Copyists,  (4)  The 
Invention  of  Printing,  and  (5)  The  Publication  of  English 
Dictionaries. 

Origin  of  the  Alphabet.  "  Before  or  during  the  rule  of  the 
Hyksos  in  Egypt,  the  Phoenician  settlers  in  the  Delta  borrowed 
from  the  Egyptians  twenty-two  hieratic  characters,  Avhich  they 
passed  on  to  their  Asiatic  kinsmen.  These  characters  re- 
ceived new  names,  and  became  the  Phoenician  alphabet.  Now, 
wherever  the  Phoenicians  went,  they  carried  this  alphabet  as 
^  one  of  their  exports.'  "  (See  "  Current  Literature,"  ISIarch, 
1897,  for  another  interesting  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
alphabet.)  "  It  was  through  the  Phoenicians,  probably,  that  the 
Greeks  received  it ;  the  Greeks  passed  it  on  to  the  Romans, 
and  the  Romans  gave  it  to  the  German  peoples.  In  this  way 
did  our  alphabet  come  to  us  from  Old  Egypt."  In  this  his- 
torical process  some  of  the  original  characters  were  dropped, 
the  phonetic  value  of  others  was  greatly  ciianged,  and  some 

10 


146         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

new  letters  were  introduced.  Thus  it  came  that  some  letters 
represent  more  than  one  sound,  and  that  the  same  sounds 
often  have  more  than  one  alphabetic  representative. 

Tlie  Norman  Conquest  of  England.  The  Roman  mission- 
aries were  the  first  to  reduce  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  to 
writing.  "They  used  the  Roman  letters,  in  nearly  their 
Roman  value,  and  added  new  characters  for  the  sound  of  a  in 
fat,  th  in  their  (dh),  th  in  thine,  and  w."  In  the  fusion  of  Nor- 
mans and  Saxons,  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  neither  party 
could  pronounce  the  words  of  the  other  party  correctly,  and, 
in  spelling  these  mispronunciations,  they  introduced  many 
lamentable  irregularities. 

The  Practice  of  Authors  and  Copyists.  Before  the  invention 
of  printing,  authors  spelled  words  very  much  as  the  mood  of 
the  moment  dictated.  There  was  no  authorized  orthography 
for  any  word.  Thus  it  happened  that  words  were  spelled 
differently  by  different  authors,  and  that  the  same  author 
spelled  a  word  in  more  than  one  way.  This  was  true  even 
of  proper  names,  such  as  Leicester,  Villers,  Mainwaring,  etc. 
Lower  states  that  the  word  Mainwaring  was  spelled  in  one 
hundred  and  thirty-one  different  ways.  To  make  the  matter 
worse,  the  scribes  that  multiplied  manuscripts,  were  careless 
in  spelling.  There  were  some  authors,  it  is  true,  who  tried  to 
prevent  these  evils  and  to  correct  them.  "  The  spelling  of  the 
Ormulum,  which  was  written  in  the  thirteenth  century,  though 
strange  and  cumbrous,  is  remarkable  for  its  regularity ;  and 
the  author  urges  his  copyists  to  follow  his  orthography  with 
the  utmost  exactness.  Chaucer,  also,  more  than  a  century 
later,  carefully  revised  and  corrected  his  own  works ;  and  he 
enjoined  upon  his  scribe  to  '  write  more  trew'  that  which  was 
entrusted  to  him,  saying  that  he  was  obliged  '  it  to  correct  and 
eke  to  rubbe  and  scrape,'  because  of  the  negligence  and  haste 
with  which  it  had  been  copied."  The  orthography  of  Shake- 
speare's times,  though  so  much  later  than  that  of  Chaucer,  was 


SPELLING  147- 

far  from  settled ;  even  the  name  of  the  great  poet  was  written 
more  than  thirty  different  ways. 

The  Invention  of  Printing.  When,  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  printing  by  means  of  movable  types,  was  in- 
vented, the  wretched  spelling  of  authors  unfortunately  became 
a  somewhat  fixed  orthography.  To  make  the  matter  worse, 
printers  often  spelled  words  as  prompted  by  convenience  of 
space,  now  adding  a  letter,  now  omitting  it,  to  suit  the  partic- 
ular case. 

The  Publication  of  Dictionaries.  At  last  the  era  of  lexicog- 
raphers was  ushered  in.  The  most  distressing  irregularities 
of  spelling  began  to  disappear,  and  conformity  to  orthographic 
principles  took  their  place.  Of  course,  it  was  impossible  to  re- 
duce chaos  to  order  at  once,  but  Dr.  Johnson's  celebrated  dic- 
tionary, published  in  1755,  settled  usage  definitely  in  favor  of 
some  one  of  the  numerous  forms  in  which  words  were  written, 
and  thus  removed  the  cause  of  confusion.  In  other  words, 
Johnson's  dictionary  became  a  standard  of  English  orthog- 
raphy. The  great  lexicographers,  Noah  Webster  and  Wor- 
cester, followed  in  1828.  They  introduced  orthographic 
changes  that  met  almost  universal  approval.  First,  they 
restored  primitive  spellings  in  order  to  reveal  etymological 
affinities,  and  second,  they  reduced  as  much  as  possible  the 
number  of  anomalies  and  special  cases.  Notwithstanding  the 
improvements  made  by  Johnson,  Webster,  Worcester,  and 
other  lexicographers,  English  orthography  continues  to  dis- 
tress those  who  must  use  it. 

Spelling  Reforms.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  in- 
troduce a  system  of  phonetic  spelling,  i.e.,  a  system  in  which 
each  elementary  sound  of  a  word  is  represented  by  its  own 
alphabetic  sign.  Among  the  first  to  attempt  a  phonetic  sys- 
tem was  Sir  Thomas  Smith  (1568),  Secretary  of  State  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Eminent  scholars  in  the  times  of  Charles  I. 
introduced  orthographic  changes,  and  tried  to  popularize  pho- 


148         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

netic  spelling ;  but,  inasmuch  as  these  efforts  did  not  rest  on 
settled  principles,  the  effects  were  not  permanent.  In  modern 
times,  Dr.  Franklin  invented  a  phonetic  system,  but  it  was 
imperfect,  and  he  scarcely  used  it  himself  except  in  a  brief 
correspondence  with  a  friend.  Among  recent  attempts  are 
those  of  A.  J.  Ellis,  I.  Pittman,  E.  Jones,  and  A.  M.  Bell. 
The  system  of  Mr.  Bell  has  been  used  in  scientific  treatises, 
but  seems  not  to  be  gaining  any  permanent  hold.  Many  lead- 
ing philologists  of  England  and  America  are  advocates  of  re- 
form in  orthography.  Dr.  March,  Professors  Whitney  and 
Haldeman,  of  America,  and  Max  Miiller,  Ellis,  and  Jones,  of 
England,  are  some  of  the  foremost  advocates  of  spelling  re- 
form. The  Funk  &  Wagnalls  "  Scientific  Alphabet"  prob- 
ably indicates  and  paves  the  way  for  the  most  practicable  re- 
form in  spelling.  By  means  of  a  clever  diacritical  system  and 
two  additional  letters,  our  present  alphabet  becomes  the  means 
of  an  almost  perfect  phonetic  orthography. 

Such  a  reform  is  certainly  desirable.  It  will  save  time  and 
labor  in  schools;  it  will  save  time,  labor,  and  expense,  in 
printing.  Moreover,  the  proposed  changes  in  orthography 
are  not  so  violent  as  to  seal  the  volumes  of  the  old-style  orthog- 
raphy. 

Physical  Structure  of  English  Words.  A  language  in 
which  each  elementary  sound  is  represented  to  the  eye  by  a 
special  letter,  is  termed  Phonetic.  English  orthography,  as 
we  have  seen,  is  very  irregular.  "  This  irregularity  consists 
in  the  use  of  silent  letters,  and  in  the  use  of  different  letters 
and  combinations  to  represent  the  same  sound.  Many  letters 
are  pronounced  in  several  different  ways,  while  the  letters  or 
combinations  of  letters  for  a  single  sound,  in  some  cases 
amount  to  scores.  Many  words  of  no  more  than  two  sylla- 
bles may  be  spelled  in  several  thousand  different  ways,  by  the 
use  of  combinations  actually  employed  in  other  words  of  the 
language.     The  word  scissors,  it  is  computed  by  Ellis,  may  be 


SPELLING  149 

thus  written  in  nearly  six  thousand  different  ways.  Indeed, 
it  may  be  truly  said  that  we  possess  the  worst  alphabetic  spell- 
ing in  the  world.  English  orthography  is  '  the  opprobrium 
of  English  scholarship' ;  it  is  the  greatest  hindrance  to  educa- 
tion and  to  the  spread  of  our  language."  And  yet  (see  page 
151)  "over  nine-tenths  of  our  words  can  be  classified;  that 
is,  the  sounds  of  the  letters  can  be  determined  by  their  rela- 
tion to  others  in  the  word." 

The  Psychology  of  Spelling'.  The  physical  structure  of 
words  determines  the  necessary  mental  acts  in  spelling. 

Oml  Spelling.  (1)  The  orthography  of  many  words  must 
be  learned,  as  other  "  facts"  are  learned,  by  observation,  i.e., 
by  the  use  of  judgment  in  connection  with  the  senses.  Atten- 
tion makes  any  word,  however  irregular  it  may  be,  a  possession 
of  memory.  Imagination  is  a  strong  reinforcement  of  memory 
both  in  learning  and  using  the  letters  of  a  word.  (2)  The 
"rules"  of  spelling  (see  page  151)  must  be  learned  by  induc- 
tion, and  (3)  used  by  deduction. 

Written  Spelling.  The  spelling  of  a  written  word  may,  of 
course,  be  learned  "  by  ear"  alone,  provided  one  has  already 
learned  the  alphabetic  letters,  for  then  the  imagination  will 
furnish  a  sight-substitute  ;  but  commonly  the  eye  is  the  most 
effective  means.  The  most  effective  way  of  learning  the  or- 
thography of  a  word  is  to  write  the  word,  thus  reinforcing 
sight  by  muscular  sensation.  This  combination  in  learning  to 
spell  a  word  will  generally  insure  its  correct  use  in  composi- 
tion. 

B.    INSTRUCTION  IN  SPELLING. 

The  topics  to  be  considered  under  the  head  of  "  Instruction 
in  Spelling,"  are  as  follows  :  (1)  The  Preparation  of  a  Spelling 
Lesson ;  (2)  The  Recitation  of  a  Spelling  Lesson  ;  (3)  Supple- 
mentary Devices  in  Spelling ;  (4)  Relative  Merits  of  Written 
and  Oral  Spelling  ;  (5)  Principles  of  Instruction ;  (6)  Course 
of  Lessons ;  and  (7)  The  Importance  of  Spelling. 


150         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

I.  THE  PREPAEATION  OF  A  SPELLING  LESSON. 

That  which  is  to  be  learned  in  this  case  necessitates  associa- 
tive memory  reinforced  by  rules  as  much  as  the  nature  of  the 
subject  admits.  (See  the  Sixth  and  Tenth  Principles  of  In- 
struction.) Associative  memory  as  a  process  begins  in  obser- 
vation. Hence  it  follows  that  in  order  to  master  words  in 
spelling  the  pupil's  tasks  are  three :  (1)  Observation ;  (2)  E,ec- 
ollective  Practice ;  and  (3)  The  Discovery  and  Use  of  Rules. 

Observation.  Perfect  observation  is  indispensable  to  true 
associations.  Persistent  associations,  i.e.,  abiding  memories,  are 
assured  by  multiplying  association-tracks  in  observing  that 
which  is  to  be  remembered.  (See  Summation  of  Stimuli,  page 
25.)  Thus  we  see  that  pupils  should  study  a  word  not  only 
with  the  eye,  but  also  with  the  hand,  ear,  and  voice.  That  is 
to  say,  the  pupil  should  observe  the  spelling  of  a  word  (1)  by 
looking  at  it  critically,  regarding  its  letters,  syllables,  and  the 
word  as  a  picture-whole,  (2)  writing  it,  (3)  comparing  it  with 
the  word  copied,  (4)  naming  the  letters  in  their  order  until  it 
becomes  an  easy  and  accurate  process,  (5)  pronouncing  the 
syllables  successively  and  as  a  whole.  The  teacher  must  make 
sure  that  pupils  acquire  the  habit  of  thus  observing  words. 
The  black-board  and  slates,  or  tablets,  should  be  used. 

RecoUective  Practice.  In  order  to  assure  persistent  asso- 
ciations, the  learner  dare  not  be  content  with  the  observation 
just  described.  He  must  repeatedly  write  the  words  which  he 
has  studied,  name  the  letters  of  the  word  of  which  he  thinks,  or 
spell  it  orally  at  some  one  else's  dictation,  comparing  the  re- 
sults to  see  if  the  attempted  associations  be  true.  This  work 
dare  not  be  neglected  except  at  the  risk  of  losing  what  was 
gained  only  by  hard  work  at  first.  (See  Second  Principle  of 
Culture.) 

The  teacher  must  see  to  it  that  pupils  get  this  practice. 

The  Discovery  and  Use  of  Rules.    Observation  and  recol- 


SPELLING  151 

lective  practice  are  necessities  especially  because  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  orthography.  But,  as  indicated  in  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter,  there  are  conformities  to  law  in  English  or- 
thography, which,  though  they  seem  "  few  and  far  between" 
to  the  thoughtless,  can  be  discovered  and  utilized  in  learning 
to  spell.  Indeed,  memory  finds  a  most  grateful  reinforce- 
ment in  more  than  a  few  rules,  or  laws,  of  spelling.  Among 
the  most  serviceable  rules,  though  of  course  there  are  excep- 
tions, are  the  following  : 

1.  Final  e  is  dropped  before  a  suffix  that  begins  with  a 
vowel ;  as,  write,  ivriting. 

2.  Final  e  is  retained  before  a  suffix  that  begins  with  a  con- 
sonant ;  as,  state,  statement.     Exception,,  jwd^men^. 

3.  Final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  is  changed  to  i  before  a 
suffix  that  does  not  begin  with  i;  as,  lady,  ladies. 

4.  Final  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  sound  is  retained  before  all 
suffixes  ;  as,  joy,  joyous,  enjoyment,  chimney,  chimneys. 

5.  After  a  single  vowel,  the  final  consonant  of  any  word 
accented  on  the  final  syllable,  is  doubled  before  a  suffix  that 
begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  control,  controlled,  flit,  flitting. 

6.  After  a  single  vowel,  the  final  consonant  of  any  word 
not  accented  on  the  final  syllable,  is  not  doubled  before  a  suf- 
fix that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  benefit,  benefited. 

7.  After  single  vowels,  final/  and  I  of  monosyllables  are 
generally  doubled  ;  as,  bell,  staff. 

8.  After  diphthongs,  or  more  than  a  single  vowel,  the  final 
consonant  is  never  doubled ;  as,  reveal,  revealing. 

9.  Words  relating  to  matter  end  in  ceous,  and  others  end  in 
cious  ;  as,  cretaceous,  ferocious. 

10.  In  such  words  as  conceive  and  receipt,  c  is  generally  fol- 
lowed by  ei,  and  other  letters  of  the  alphabet  by  ie  ;  as,  belief, 
retrieve. 

There  is  no  sufficient  reason  why  pupils  should  not  be  re- 
quired to  look  for  such  rules  and  to  justify  their  spelling  by 


152         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

reference  to  these  rules  when  they  apply  to  the  case  in  hand. 
For  a  full  discussion  of  such  rules  see  Worcester's  Unabridged 
Dictionary. 

II.  THE  EECITATION  OF  A  SPELLING  LESSON. 
What  the  requirements  of  a  recitation  in  spelling  may  be, 
depends  very  much  on  the  means  to  be  used  in  reciting.  When 
the  words  are  to  be  written  the  necessities  are  very  different 
from  those  of  an  oral  recitation,  whether  it  be  alphabetic  or 
phonetic.  It  seems  most  convenient  to  consider  written  spell- 
ing first. 

a.   WEITTEN   SPELLING. 

The  points  to  be  considered  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Prelimina- 
ries ;  (2)  Giving  out  the  Words ;  (3)  Spelling  the  Words ;  (4) 
Corrections ;  (5)  Assignment  of  Lessons ;  and  (6)  The  Mean- 
ing of  Words  in  Spelling  Lessons. 

Preliminaries.  The  words  to  be  spelled  should  not  be 
given  out  before  the  class  is  properly  seated  and  supplied  with 
the  most  desirable  writing  materials,  or  before  the  class  has 
passed  to  the  black-board  and  taken  the  most  suitable  places 
according  to  thoughtful  directions  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
The  most  suitable  writing  materials  for  spelling  classes  are 
prepared  blank  books,  together  with  pen  and  ink.  On  passing 
to  the  board,  if  that  be  the  mode  of  recitation,  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  prepare  the  board,  i.e.,  to  erase  what- 
ever may  have  to  be  erased,  to  space  the  board  by  means  of 
vertical  lines,  and  to  write  their  names  neatly  near  the  top 
toward  the  right  upper  corner  of  their  respective  spaces. 
Whether  seated  or  standing,  all  members  should  be  required 
to  maintain  a  natural  and  graceful  posture.  No  disturbing 
conduct  should  be  tolerated,  and  absolute  attentiveness  should 
be  developed  in  all  parties  about  to  engage  in  the  recitation. 

Giving  Out  the  Words.  When  everybody  is  ready, — and 
that  should  be  as  soon  as  possible, — the  words  should  be  pro- 


SPELLING  153 

nounced  in  such  order  as  the  teacher  thinks  best.  The  words 
should,  of  course,  be  proiiounced  distinctly  and  correctly,  but 
only  once,  except  for  good  reasons.  For  obvious  reasons  it  is 
generally  better  that  the  teacher,  rather  than  a  pupil,  gives  out 
the  words.  As  boojj.  as  a  v/ord  has  been  written,  some  pupil 
ought  to  be  requested  to  use  it  in  an  illustrative  sentence,  or 
to  tell  in  his  own  way  what  the  word  means.  It  is  often  good 
for  the  pupil's  development  to  associate  the  meaning  of  words 
with  the  spelliog.  The  teacher  should  have  a  stx)ck  of  illus- 
trations on  h^^nd  for  use  in  every  recitatiotr. 

Spelling  the  Words.  (1)  As  suggested,  prepared  blank- 
books,  rather  than  slates,  should  be  used  in  written  spelling. 
As  soon  as  pupils  are  able  to  do  so,  they  should  be  required  to 
write  the  words  with  pen  and  ink.  This  method  effectually 
prevents  erasures  and  "  second  trials,"  first  steps  to  indecision 
and  dishonesty,  two  serious  habits  to  which  human  nature  is  so 
prone.  (2)  To  develop  the  habit  of  capitalization  and  punctua- 
tion, frequent  dictation  lessons  should  be  conjoined  with  the 
regular  spelling  lists.  In  these  lessons  the  teacher  frames  the 
words  of  the  list  into  sentences.  He  reads  these  sentences  in 
parts,  if  necessary,  or  as  a  whole,  when  possible,  and  requires 
the  pupils  to  write  them  correctly.  (3)  In  lists,  or  columns, 
of  written  words,  only  proper  names  require  capitals.  (4) 
The  pupils  should  frequently  be  required  to  write  the  words 
in  separate  syllables,  the  separation  being  denoted  by  spaces, 
rather  than  by  hyphens.  This  device  reserves  the  hyphen  for 
its  more  distinctive  uses  in  compound  words  and  at  the  end  of 
a  line  of  writing.  (5)  With  younger  pupils  it  is  well  to  use 
slate  and  pencil  at  first,  and  paper  and  pencil  afterwards,  until 
they  may  be  trusted  with  pen  and  ink.  The  words  should  be 
written  in  columns  and  numbered.  (6)  The  black-board  is 
often  better  than  either  slate  or  paper.  It  is  especially  useful 
when  words  are  to  be  spelled  in  separate  syllables.  A  spelling 
lesson  on  the  black-board  is  sometimes  an  agreeable  variation 


154         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

from  the  other  modes  of  written  spelling.  The  words  should 
be  written  in  columns  and  numbered. 

Corrections.  At  a  signal  from  the  teacher^  the  pupils  may- 
exchange  blank-books  at  the  seat,  or  places  at  the  board,  care 
being  taken  to  prevent  cheating.  The  pupils  may  also  be 
allowed  to  correct  their  own  lists,  in  order  to  develop  moral 
responsibility.  The  right  of  appeal  to  the  teacher  must  be 
allowed  when  pupils  do  not  correct  their  own  lists,  and  the 
teacher  should  frequently  inspect  the  corrected  lists  to  make 
sure  of  his  pupils.  In  the  case  of  younger  pupils  such  in- 
spection must  obviously  be  most  frequent.  Corrections  may 
be  indicated  by  crosses,  figures,  or  any  other  good  device  upon 
which  the  teacher  may  determine.  At  the  close  of  every  regu- 
lar recitation  in  spelling,  the  misspelled  words  should  be  re- 
corded in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose.  If  prepared  blank- 
books  are  used  by  the  class,  the  words  may  be  correctly  written 
right  after  the  incorrect  spelling.  This  is  probably  the  best 
way ;  it  requires  the  pupil  to  compare  words,  and  saves  the 
teacher  the  trouble  of  constant  inspection. 

Assignraent  of  Lessons.  At  the  close  of  the  recitation, 
if  the  pupils  are  young,  the  list  of  words  for  the  next  lesson 
ought  to  be  pronounced.  The  pupils  should  have  the  first 
chance  to  pronounce  the  words  of  the  prospective  lesson.  In 
case  of  failure,  the  teacher  must  come  to  the  pupil's  rescue. 
He  may  simply  pronounce  the  difficult  word,  and  require  the 
pupils  to  imitate  his  pronunciations.  But  the  better  way  is  to 
resort  to  phonic  drill  in  the  case  of  difficult  words.  (See 
chapter  on  Reading.)  Mischief  must  come  from  any  neglect 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  see  to  these  pre-pronimciations. 

The  Meaning-  of  Words  in  Spelling  Lessons.  (See 
under  Oral  Spelling.) 


SPELLING  155 


6.    ORAL  SPELLING. 


The  points  to  be  considered  are  as  follows :  (1)  Prelimi- 
naries ;  (2)  Giving  out  the  Words ;  (3)  Spelling  the  Words ; 
(4)  Assignment  of  Lessons ;  and  (5)  The  Meaning  of  Words. 

Preliminaries.  If  the  method  of  "  trapping"  is  not  to  be 
used,  the  pupils  of  the  oral  spelling  class  may  be  either  seated 
or  standing.  In  either  case,  they  should  be  required  to  assume 
a  healthful  and  orderly  posture.  It  is  thought  best,  however, 
to  require  the  class  to  stand  rather  than  to  sit ;  this  posture  is 
a  physical  relief  to  pupils,  and  prepares  them  to  sit  still  when 
they  return  to  their  respective  seats.  Then,  too,  if  the  trap- 
ping system  is  used,  the  standing  posture  is  obviously  more 
appropriate. 

Giving  Out  the  Words.  (1)  The  trapping  system  of 
course  requires  that  the  words  be  passed  from  the  upper  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  class  in  regular  order.  When  trapping  is  not 
allowed,  the  words  may  be  assigned  to  any  pupil  at  pleasure. 
The  former  method  is  advisable  as  a  stimulus.  (2)  The  words 
should  not  be  given  out  in  any  order  which  might  tempt  the 
pupils  to  commit  it.  If  this  caution  is  not  observed,  pupils 
are  likely  to  prepare  only  those  words  which  they  expect  to 
get  in  their  turn.  (3)  In  giving  out  the  words  of  a  spelling 
lesson,  the  teacher  should  not,  except  for  good  reasons,  pro- 
nounce a  word  more  than  once.  If  he  falls  into  the  habit  of 
pronouncing  the  words  oftener  than  once,  the  pupils  will  ex- 
pect him  to  do  so.  In  that  event,  they  will  become  habitu- 
ally inattentive,  thus  trying  the  teacher's  patience,  wasting 
valuable  time,  and  fitting  themselves  for  failures  in  later 
years.  (4)  There  are  various  methods  of  passing  from  word 
to  word  in  assigning  them  to  a  class,  (a)  The  same  word  may 
be  assigned  by  nod  of  the  head,  or  other  appropriate  signal,  to 
more  than  one  pupil,  just  as  if  it  had  been  misspelled.  This 
method  develops  attentiveness  and  certainty  as  to  the  spelling 


156         PRINCIPLES   AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  a  word.  (6)  Whenever  a  word  is  misspelled,  the  next  word 
may  be  assigned.  The  pupil  to  whom  it  is  assigned  is  ex- 
pected to  spell  the  word  that  was  missed  rather  than  the  word 
after  it.  If  the  pupil  fails  to  do  this,  the  teacher  gives  out  a 
new  word,  and  keeps  on  giving  out  new  words  until  some  one 
spells  the  word  that  was  first  missed.  The  pupil  that  spells 
this  word,  takes  the  place  of  the  pupil  that  missed  it,  or,  if  it 
has  passed  the  "head"  of  the  class,  he  "goes  up  head."  This 
is  possibly  the  best  method.  It  develops  the  greatest  atten- 
tion, and  stimulates  to  thorough  preparation  of  the  lesson. 
Both  methods,  (a)  and  (6),  may  be  used  in  every  recitation. 
The  variation  is  very  stimulating.  (5)  The  teacher  should 
not  allow  himself  to  fall  into  the  habit  of  saying  "  right," 
"  wrong,"  "  next,"  etc.  This  habit  is  not  only  ludicrous,  but 
cultivates  an  undesirable  dependence  of  the  pupils  on  the 
teacher.  (6)  Sometimes  false  sympathy  prompts  teachers  to 
suggest  the  spelling  of  a  word  by  pronouncing  it  in  such  a 
way  as  to  name  the  letters.  Thus,  teachers  are  sometimes 
tempted  to  say  orator  for  orator^  infinite  for  infinite.  This  is 
evidently  wrong.  If  the  pupil  cannot  spell  a  word  when  it  is 
pronounced  as  it  would  be  in  good  speaking  or  reading,  the 
pupil  does  not  know  the  word,  and  should  fail.  The  ability 
to  pronounce  words  as  they  should  be  pronounced  is  obviously 
indispensable  in  teaching  spelling. 

Spelling-  the  Words.  (1)  In  the  oral  spelling  class,  the 
pupil  should  be  required  to  pronounce  the  assigned  word  before 
he  attempts  to  spell  it.  This  precaution  assures  both  teacher 
and  pupil  that  the  word  was  understood,  and  thus  avoids  dis- 
putes, as  well  as  other  evils.  (2)  There  are  three  possible 
things  to  do  after  the  pupil's  pronunciation  of  a  word :  (a) 
The  pupil  may  name  the  letters  of  each  syllable  in  order,  pro- 
nouncing each  syllable  in  its  order,  but  only  once,  and  the 
word  as  a  whole  at  last.  (6)  The  pupil  may  name  the  letters 
as  before,  pronouncing  each  syllable  in  its  order,  and  then 


SPELLING  157 

again  in  its  proper  connection  with  all  the  syllables  that  pre- 
cede, thus  pronouncing  the  last  syllable  twice  in  all,  the  second 
last  syllable  thrice,  etc.  Illustration  :  P&rdgraph ;  p,  a,  r 
{par),  d  {&),  j)C(,m,  g,  r,  a,  p,  h  [graph),  paragraph,  (c)  The 
pupil  may  name  the  letters  as  before,  pausing  at  the  end  of 
each  syllable,  and  pronouncing  the  word  as  a  whole,  thus  pro- 
nouncing each  syllable  only  once.  (3)  The  first  method  (a)  is 
probably  proper  for  younger  pupils  as  a  drill  in  pronouncing. 
The  second  method  may  be  even  better,  so  long  as  the  words 
to  be  spelled  are  not  long  polysyllables.  In  classes  that  are 
ready  for  polj'syllables,  the  third  method  is  less  awkward, 
saves  time,  and  is  sufficiently  suggestive  of  the  syllables  that 
make  up  the  word.  Indeed,  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
the  first  two  methods  accomplish  that  which  is  commonly 
claimed  for  them.  It  seems  far  better  to  teach  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  words  by  phonic  drills.  This  procedure  reserves  alpha- 
betic spelling  to  its  legitimate  sphere,  i.e.,  naming  the  ortho- 
graphic characters  of  a  word. 

Assignment  of  Spelling  Lessons.  (See  under  Written 
Spelling.) 

The  Meaning  of  Words  in  Spelling  Lessons.  (1)  In 
the  spelling  lessons  that  accompany  reading  lessons,  as  well  as 
in  those  incidental  spelling  tests  that  belong  to  all  lessons, 
"  meanings"  should,  of  course,  be  taught  with  spelling.  This 
is  evidently  advisable,  but  in  the  interests  of  the  lessons  to 
which  the  spelling  is  supplementary,  rather  than  in  the  interest 
of  spelling  as  spelling.  On  grounds  of  convenience,  these 
supplementary  lessons  in  spelling  should  be  oral  lessons.  But 
oral  spelling  loses  its  native  interest  when  interrupted  by  tests 
on  "  meanings."  Therefore,  except  in  cases  where  the  mean- 
ing of  words,  rather  than  their  pronunciation,  determines  the 
spelling,  the  tests  on  meanings  should  either  precede  or  follow 
the  regular  spelling  exercise. 

(2)  In  our  days  it  is  supposed  that  only  heretics  in  educa- 


158         PKINCIPLES  AND  METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

tion  would  advocate  spelling  lessons  in  wliich  the  meaning  of 
all  the  words  cannot  be  taught.  This  is  high  ground  to  take. 
The  view  is  based  on  a  false  creed  in  psychology  and  peda- 
gogy, {a)  In  the  first  place,  it  is  wrongly  supposed  that 
memory  ought  to  be  absolutely  dependent  on  the  understand- 
ing. The  order  in  which  the  mental  functions  mature  con- 
futes this  theory.  (See  the  eleventh  law  of  Mental  Activity.) 
Then,  too,  a  good  mechanical  memory,  i.e.,  associative  memory 
unassisted  by  the  understanding,  is  the  best  equipment  for 
more  than  one  important  task  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life. 
(6)  In  the  second  place,  it  is  economy  in  pedagogy  to  teach  the 
younger  pupils  the  spelling  of  words  whose  meanings  they  can- 
not fully  master  for  the  time  being  on  account  of  immaturity. 
This  conclusion  follows  from  several  obvious  facts  :  First,  the 
mind  of  younger  pupils  is  able  to  spell,  though  unable  to  mas- 
ter meanings.  Second,  the  programme  of  younger  pupils  is 
not  crowded.  This  leaves  room  for  stress  on  spelling  as  spell- 
ing. Thus  time  and  possibilities  are  utilized.  Third,  the 
competitive  interest  is  present  as  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  the 
necessary  associative  efforts.  Fourth,  the  meanings  of  words 
are  readily  mastered  in  due  time,  whereas  the  spelling  of  words 
requires  too  much  time  and  effort  when  the  epoch  of  thought- 
lessons  has  come. 

(3)  It  is  therefore  maintained,  as  we  think,  on  sufficient 
grounds,  and  earnestly  advocated,  that  regular  spelling  lessons 
from  spelling-books  be  kept  in  our  course  of  studies,  whether 
or  not  we  find  time  enough  to  teach  the  meaning  of  all  the 
words  as  fast  as  we  go  in  spelling.  If  any  other  argument  is 
demanded,  it  may  be  confidently  affirmed  that  those  who 
learned  to  spell  under  the  old  spelling-book  stimulus  are  in- 
finitely superior  in  practical  spelling.  There  is  no  doubt  about 
it  that  the  spelling-book  has  been  abused,  and  that  it  will  be 
abused  ;  but,  all  things  considered,  its  legitimate  use  will  pro- 
duce an  ability  in  spelling  that  is  most  gratifying,  -whereas  its 


SPELLING  159 

disuse  has  sent  a  great  host  of  Josh.  Billings  into  our  Normal 
Schools,  Colleges,  and  other  spheres.  The  necessary  "  stress" 
on  spelling  as  spelling  is  best  secured  by  systematic,  persistent 
use  of  a  good  spelling-book. 

III.  SUPPLEMENTARY  DEVICES   IN  SPELLING. 

The  tasks  of  the  pupil  in  learning  to  spell,  as  pointed  out, 
are,  (1)  Observation ;  (2)  Recollective  Practice ;  and  (3)  The 
Discovery  and  Use  of  Rules.  But  the  pupil  will  be  more 
likely  to  perform  these  tasks  vigorously  and  habitually  if  the 
proper  stimulus  is  supplied.  In  most  instances  it  is  not  an 
adequate  stimulus,  to  insist  simply  on  the  importance  of 
spelling.  This  argument  somehow  fails  to  touch  the  ordi- 
nary pupil  to  the  quick.  Any  appeal  to  the  competitive 
instinct  is  more  effective.  The  competitive  instinct  is  utilized 
in  the  following  devices:  (1)  The  Method  of  Trapping;  (2) 
Reviews ;  (3)  Recreations  in  Word-Building ;  and  (4)  Spell- 
ing Matches. 

The  Method  of  Trapping-.  The  "trapping"  system  is 
most  effective  in  oral  recitations,  and  with  younger  pupils, 
but  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  written  recitations,  and  with 
older  pupils.  (1)  In  the  written  recitation  the  number  of 
errors  determines  the  respective  places.  The  matter  must  be 
settled  at  the  close  of  the  recitation,  though  the  places  should 
not  be  taken  until  the  next  recitation.  The  pupil  will  usually 
see  to  it  that  places  are  not  wrongly  taken.  The  seats,  slates, 
corrections,  etc.,  must  be  carefully  supervised  to  prevent  dis- 
honesty. (2)  In  oral  recitations  the  temptation  to  cheat  is  not 
so  great,  and  attempts  to  do  so  are  more  readily  detected.  The 
method  of  trapping  in  oral  spelling  classes  adds  a  difficult  task 
to  that  of  conducting  the  class,  namely,  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  such  feelings  as  anger,  envy,  pride,  etc.  Vigilance  and 
absolute  justice  are  therefore  imperative.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
require  the  pupil  at  the  head  to  start  again  at  the  foot.     This 


160         PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

device  is  in  most  instances  enjoyed  as  much  by  the  pupil  that 
goes  down  foot  as  by  the  others. 

Reviews.  It  was  pointed  out  that  at  the  close  of  regular 
written  recitations  in  spelling,  the  misspelled  words  should  be 
recorded  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose.  At  stated  times 
these  lists  should  be  used  as  a  review  lesson.  The  words 
marked  as  misspelled  in  oral  recitations  may  also  be  used  in 
the  same  way.  The  importance  of  such  reviews  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated,  seeing  that  they  make  it  necessary  for  pupils 
to  study  the  very  words  which  ought  to  be  studied.  The  list 
of  words  to  be  spelled  in  reviews  may,  for  the  same  reason, 
be  selected  from  readers,  examination  papers,  compositions, 
etc.,  but  always  with  adaptation  to  the  pupils'  grade.  (See 
First,  Second,  and  Third  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

Recreations  in  Word-Building.  Various  recreations  in 
spelling  have  been  proposed  by  ingenious  teachers.  These 
devices  are  useful  as  supplementary  w^ork  for  pupils  whose 
time  cannot  otherwise  be  advantageously  utilized.  It  is,  how- 
ever, doubtful  whether  such  recreations  should  ever  be  allowed 
to  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  spelling  lessons.  As  a  stim- 
ulus to  word-building  the  following  recreation  has  been  pro- 
posed :  The  pupil  takes  any  fertile  word,  as  subscription,  and 
writes  in  a  column  all  the  words  which  he  can  construct,  using 
any  letter  of  the  given  word  only  once  in  each  new  word,  or 
as  often  as  it  occurs  in  the  given  w^ord.  The  new  words  must 
of  course  be  true  words.  It  is  surprising  how  many  words 
can  be  built  up  by  young  pupils  in  this  way. 

Spelling  Matches.  (1)  The  oral  spelling  match,  as  eveiy 
one  wlio  has  any  personal  knowledge  of  the  matter,  knows,  is 
a  most  stimulating  variety  in  the  study  of  spelling.  The 
competitive  instinct  is  thus  excited  throughout  the  school,  and 
sometimes  throughout  the  community  to  w^hich  the  school 
belongs.  A  written  spelling  match,  though  quite  tame  when 
compared  with  the  oral  spelling  matches,  is  nevertheless  very 


SPELLING  161 

effective  if  wisely  conducted.  Eeview  lessons  may  be  con- 
ducted with  advantage  in  this  way.  Spelling  matches  should 
not  come  too  often.  They  encroach  too  much  upon  regular 
work.  When  they  do  come,  say  once  in  two  weeks,  the  con- 
ditions should  be  clearly  understood,  so  as  to  avoid  various 
evils.  Disorderliness  must  be  strictly  excluded.  (2)  Inge- 
nious teachers  have  hit  upon  more  than  one  good  way  to  con- 
duct spelling  matches.  Among  others  the  following  are  rec- 
ommended : 

The  Common  Method.  In  the  common  spelling  match  two 
persons  of  about  equal  ability  are  appointed  by  the  teacher,  or 
selected  by  the  class,  to  be  the  "  leaders,"  or  "  captains,"  of 
"  sides."  These  captains  come  forward,  and,  after  deciding 
which  one  is  to  have  first  choice,  call  up  alternately  the  per- 
sons who  are  to  take  part  in  the  contest.  In  this  way  the 
"  sides"  are  formed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room.  When  the 
lines  have  been  formed,  the  teacher  proceeds  to  assign  the 
words  to  be  spelled.  He  assigns  the  first  word  to  the  captain 
that  had  the  first  choice  in  choosing  "  sides."  If  the  captain 
to  whom  the  word  was  assigned  misses,  he  is  required  to  take 
his  seat,  i.e.,  he  is  "  spelled  down."  The  other  captain  then 
takes  his  turn  to  spell  the  word  that  was  missed.  If  he  misses, 
he  takes  his  seat,  etc.  The  side  that  remains  on  the  floor  last, 
or  that  has  more  spellers  left,  at  the  close  of  the  contest,  is 
declared  the  winning  side.  The  time  to  be  allowed,  or  the 
list  of  words  to  be  used,  should  be  settled  before  the  match 
begins.  There  are  several  obvious  objections  to  this  method 
of  spelling. 

Saving  and  Out.  The  common  method  can  be  converted 
into  a  better  method  by  a  variation  in  the  process  of  spelling 
down.  The  plan  is  as  follows  :  If  A,  and  then  his  opponent 
B,  misses  a  word,  but  C  spells  it,  A  is  "  saved"  from  taking 
his  seat  and  only  B  is  "  out."  In  this  way,  two,  three,  and 
more  persons,  are  sometimes  saved  to  a  side.     The  merits  of 

11 


162         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

this  method  are  evident.  "  Saving  and  out/'  is  probably  the 
best  of  all  the  methods  for  oral  spelling  matches. 

A  Written  Spelling  Match.  Written  spelling  matches,  when 
wisely  conducted,  are  not  as  uninteresting  as  it  is  sometimes 
supposed.  The  choosing  of  sides  can  be  managed  as  in  oral 
spelling.  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  seat  the  spellers  so  as  to 
keep  those  of  the  same  side  from  helping  each  other.  This 
difficulty  is  usually  overcome  by  alternate  seating,  i.e.,  by  so 
arranging  the  spellers  in  seats  as  to  separate  those  of  one  side 
by  means  of  the  spellers  of  the  opposing  side.  When  the 
number  of  words  upon  which  it  was  agreed,  has  been  spelled, 
slates,  or  books,  may  be  exchanged,  opp?nents  correcting  the 
words  of  opponents,  and  reporting  the  number  of  mistakes. 
All  the  spellers  must  be  allowed  to  appeal  to  the  teacher  before 
the  final  results  are  announced.  The  side  which,  on  adding 
up  mistakes,  is  found  to  have  missed  the  greater  number  of 
words,  is  declared  "vanquished,"  or  "defeated,"  or  "lost." 

There  are  four  or  five  other  methods  of  conducting  spelling 
matches,  but  they  hardly  deserve  recognition  here.  Ingenious 
teachers  may  invent  plans  to  suit  themselves,  but  the  attempt 
to  change  plans  too  often  is  productive  of  misunderstandings, 
and  should  therefore  be  avoided.  The  teacher  must  in  all 
cases  see  to  it  that  quarrels  and  bitterness  do  not  result  from 
these  competitive  exercises  in  spelling. 

IV.  RELATIVE  MERITS  OF  WRITTEN  AND  ORAL  SPELLING. 

The  questions  now  confront  us.  What  are  the  merits  of  writ- 
ten spelling  and  of  oral  spelling  ?  Which  of  the  two  modes 
deserves  to  be  cultivated  rather  than  the  other?  Do  both 
modes  of  spelling  deserve  equal  respect  ?  In  order  to  answer 
these  questions  we  must  inquire  into  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  method. 

The  Advantages  of  "Written  Spelling.  There  are  at 
least  three  important  advantages  in  written  spelling  :  (1)  Writ- 


SPELLING  163 

ten  spelling  is  more  instructive  than  oral  spelling  ;  (2)  The 
mental  discipline  of  written  spelling  is  greater  than  that  o . 
oral  spelling ;  and  (3)  The  practical  necessity  of  written  spell- 
ing is  greater  than  that  of  oral  spelling. 

1 .  Written  spelling  is  more  instructive  than  oral  spelling. 

(1)  The  "  after-images"  of  sight  are  generally  more  persist- 
ent than  those  of  hearing.  (See  Psychology.)  In  written 
spelling  the  letters  of  a  word,  and  their  true  order,  are  there- 
fore impressed  more  indelibly.  This  result  is  illustrated  in 
the  fact  that  pupils  whose  sight  is  defective  generally  find  it 
harder  to  master  spelling,  than  those  whose  sight  is  perfect. 
The  fact  that  deaf  pupils  learn  to  spell  sooner  than  blind 
pupils,  proves  the  rule. 

(2)  In  written  spelling  the  eye  can  dwell  longer  on  the 
word  just  spelled,  thus  stimulating  the  habit  of  corrective 
comparisons,  and  producing  vividness  of  sensation,  the  essen- 
tial to  persistent  associations  in  memory.  (See  the  sixth  law 
of  Mental  Activity.)  Words  orally  spelled  are  lost  to  the  ear 
almost  instantaneously.  Thus  we  see  that  by  reason  of  the 
greater  corrective  possibilities  in  written  spelling,  it  is  the 
better  mode  of  studying  spelling.  This  conclusion  is  illus- 
trated in  the  well-known  habit  of  writing  a  word  to  see  how 
it  looks  when  we  are  not  sure  that  we  have  spelled  it  right 
orally.  The  conclusion  is  also  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  per- 
sons who  learn  to  spell  by  eye  can  spell  well  orally  and  in 
composition,  whereas  those  who  can  spell  well  orally  often 
spell  poorly  in  composition. 

2.  The  mental  discipline  of  written  spelling  is  greater  than  that 

of  oral  spelling. 

(1)  In  written  spelling  every  pupil  is  required  to  spell  every 
word.  This  is  not  true  in  oral  spelling,  except,  perhaps,  where 
the  teacher  is  a  master  in  his  art. 

(2)  In  written  spelling  the  pupil  is  required  to  pay  unflag- 


164         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ging  attention.  This  discipKne  develops  the  power  to  perse- 
vere in  a  task  to  its  end.  There  is  no  species  of  culture  that 
surpasses  this  power  of  resolute  attention.  The  pupil  that 
learns  to  pay  unflagging  attention  in  the  spelling  class,  is  so 
many  steps  nearer  to  success  in  other  studies  and  in  life.  Oral 
spelling,  except  in  the  hands  of  rare  teachers,  does  not  produce 
these  effects  on  the  pupil's  will,  and  hence  is  morally  inferior. 
(3)  It  is  in  written  spelling,  as  was  pointed  out,  that  records 
of  misspelled  words  can  be  most  systematically  kept  for  re- 
views. While  such  records  are  partly  possible  in  oral  spelling, 
the  procedure  is  less  satisfactory. 

3.  The  practical  necessity  of  written  spelling  is  greater  than  that 
of  oral  spelling. 

In  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  we  could  almost  dispense 
with  oral  spelling.  It  is  different  with  written  spelling ;  we 
need  it  almost  every  day  and  in  the  most  varied  interests. 
The  ability  to  spell  orally  is  not,  as  was  pointed  out,  a  suf- 
ficient guarantee  that  a  person  can  spell  correctly  in  writing 
letters,  etc.  Correct  spelling  in  "  writings,"  as  it  will  be 
pointed  out  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  is  desirable  both  on 
its  own  account,  and  for  other  reasons. 

The  Advantages  of  Oral  Spelling.  There  are  at  least 
three  advantages  in  oral  spelling :  (1)  Oral  spelling  is  more 
convenient  incidentally  than  written  spelling ;  (2)  Oral  spell- 
ing is  the  natural  supplement  to  written  spelling ;  and  (3) 
Oral  spelling  is  more  interesting  than  written  spelling. 

1.  Oral  spelling  is  more  convenient  incidentally  than  written 
spelling. 
Pupils  should  be  required  to  spell  any  suspicious  word 
in  any  recitation  of  schooL  Elusive  terms,  and  technical 
terms,  can  often  be  definitely  placed  in  memory  by  simply 
spelling  them  a  few  times.  It  is  generally  more  convenient 
to  spell  such  words  orally,  though  it  must  be  conceded  that 


SPELLING  165 

words  which  will  slip  again  and  again  must  be  written  to  be 
mastered.  This  task  may  take  longer,  but  as  it  is  important, 
it  should  not  be  neglected. 

2.  Oral  spelling  is  the  natural  supplement  to  written  spelling. 
In  the  cases  of  defective  sight,  so  common  in  our  days, 

resort  to  oral  spelling  is  certainly  justifiable  as  a  supplement 
or  substitute.  It  was  also  pointed  out  in  the  paragraph  on 
"  Preparation  of  Spelling  Lessons,"  that  the  senses  reinforce 
each  other  in  the  work  of  committing  something  to  memory. 
In  other  words,  if  the  pupil's  eye  is  unreliable,  his  ear  must 
be  made  to  do  something  to  help  the  eye. 

3.  Oral  spelling  is  more  interesting  than  written  spelling. 

(1)  The  competitive  instinct  is  stimulated  more  successfully 
in  oral  than  in  written  spelling. 

(2)  In  oral  spelling  pupils  should  be  required  to  stand ;  this 
requirement  relieves  the  monotony  of  sitting  still  in  the  seats, 
and  thus  pleases  pupils. 

(3)  Oral  spelling  is  itself  a  pleasure  to  pupils ;  it  is  an  op- 
portunity to  use  their  vocal  organs,  an  opportunity  which  most 
pupils  welcome  instinctively,  especially  if  they  are  younger 
pupils.  This  interest  in  oral  spelling  deserves  consideration. 
(See  the  Third  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

V.  PEINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

The  foregoing  considerations  lead  us  to  several  broad  con- 
clusions, which  deserve  to  be  adopted  as  principles  of  instruc- 
tion in  spelling. 

1.  The  words  which  the  pupil  meets  in  the  studies  of 
his  grade  should  be  developed  into  a  w^orking  vocabu- 
lary. The  list  of  words  to  be  spelled  by  pupils  in  elementary 
grades,  should  consist  of  words  which  these  pupils  meet  in  all 
the  studies  of  those  grades.  The  same  rule  should  hold  in 
grammar  grades  and  higher  grades.     The  teacher  must  see  to 


166         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

it  that  pupils  not  only  learn  to  sj)ell  these  words,  but  also  to 
use  them  intelligently,  whether  it  be  in  studying  and  reciting 
the  various  lessons  of  reading,  history,  geography,  etc.,  or  in 
writing  letters,  essays,  etc.  (See  the  Fourth  Principle  of  In- 
struction.) This  work  may  be  combined  with  the  lessons  in 
reading,  history,  grammar,  etc.,  or  it  may  be  done  in  special 
spelling  lessons.  If  special  recitations  are  set  apart  for  such 
work,  the  list  of  words  selected  by  the  teacher  may  be  written 
on  the  black-board  where  the  class  can  see  and  study  them. 

2.  The  exact  psychological  complement  and  sufficient 
stimulus  of  oral  spelling  should  be  added  to  -written  spell- 
ing. (1)  Since  oral  spelling  is  a  substitute  for  written  spell- 
ing in  the  case  of  pupils  whose  sight  is  defective,  or  a  com- 
plement in  the  formation  of  persistent  associations,  it  follows 
that  the  teacher  should  study  his  class,  and  then  adjust  the 
proportion  of  written  and  oral  spelling  to  the  needs  of  the 
class.  (2)  Since  the  competitive  instinct  can  be  utilized  to 
better  advantage  in  oral  than  in  written  spelling,  there  ought 
to  be  oral  spelling  in  those  cases  where  it  is  advantageous,  i.e., 
in  reading  classes,  in  other  branches,  and  as  special  lessons 
with  younger  pupils. 

3.  The  "spelling-book"  should  be  used  as  much  as 
proper  "  stress"  and  "  economy"  require.  (1)  The  spelling- 
book  has  always  emphasized  the  importance  of  spelling  as  a 
subject  of  study.  Wherever  it  falls  into  disuse,  teachers  are 
likely  to  pay  too  little  attention  to  spelling,  and  pupils  fall 
into  habits  of  careless  spelling.  (2)  Economy  requires  that 
lists  of  words  be  mastered  in  spelling,  even  when  the  words 
cannot  all  be  developed  into  a  working  vocabulary,  (a)  The 
mind  of  the  pupil  is  ready  for  this  task  :  associative  memory, 
stimulated  by  the  competitive  instinct  which  is  present  in 
younger  pupils,  fits  them  to  do  the  required  work.  (See  the 
Eleventh  Law  of  Mental  Activity  and  the  Sixth  Principle  of 
Instruction.)     (6)  There  is  a  good  deal  of  time  on  the  hands 


SPELLING  167 

of  younger  pupils,  which  can  be  utilized  in  such  lessons,  (c) 
Moreover,  wherever  the  spelling-book  has  been  wisely  used, 
the  results  have  been  gratifying. 

VI.  COURSE  OF  LESSONS. 
It  is  evident  from  the  principles  of  instruction  in  spelling, 
that  the  course  of  lessons  should  be  as  follows  :  (1)  The  vocab- 
ulary of  the  grade  to  which  the  pupil  belongs  should  be 
mastered  in  spelKng ;  and  (2)  there  should  be  a  parallel  and 
supplementary  course  in  the  spelling-book. 

1.  Vocabulary  Lessons.  The  pupil  needs  an  ever-in- 
creasing vocabulary  in  order  (1)  that  he  may  understand 
books,  and  (2)  that  he  may  express  his  thoughts.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  this  list  of  words  (the  pupil's  necessary  vocabulary) 
is  the  list  to  be  spelled  before  any  other  work  in  spelling  is 
done. 

2.  The  Spelling-Book.  The  present  necessity  of  the  pupil 
deserves  the  teacher's  first  attention;  but,  as  pointed  out  on 
page  70,  the  future  necessity  of  the  pupil  deserves  attention, 
too.  In  other  words,  when  pupils  arrive  at  a  certain  stage  in 
their  progress,  their  working  vocabulary  needs  to  be  increased 
so  fast  that,  unless  they  have  already  learned  to  spell  many 
of  the  words,  they  will  not  have  time  enough  to  master  both 
spelling  and  meanings,  and  are  therefore  likely  to  neglect  the 
spelling.  To  avoid  this  evil,  the  lists  of  a  graded  spelling-book 
are  to  be  spelled  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  actual  vocabu- 
lary need  of  the  pupil. 

VII.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  SPELLING. 
There  are  very  few  subjects  of  study  so  seriously  neglected 
as  that  of  spelling.  The  importance  of  other  studies  is  more 
obvious,  and  this  pushes  spelling  into  the  background  of  our 
estimation.  The  following  estimate  of  spelling  seems  fair : 
(1)  The   discipline   of  spelling  has   a   moral   and   practical 


168         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

radius ;  and  (2)  good  spelling  is  a  desirable  instrument  in 
written  communications,  whether  they  be  commercial;  social, 
or  literary  and  scientific. 

1.  The  Discipline  of  Spelling.  The  habits  and  tastes  cul- 
tivated in  the  efforts  required  to  master  spelling,  assert  them- 
selves as  habits  and  tastes  in  the  moral  and  practical  activities 
of  pupils.  In  other  words,  the  habits  of  attention,  accuracy, 
and  correction,  which  the  pupil  must  cultivate  in  order  to 
master  spelling,  will  in  time  become  habits  and  tastes  in  his 
other  studies,  and  in  his  moral  and  practical  dealings. 

2.  The  Desirability  of  Ability  in  Spelling.  (1)  The 
young  people  that  seek  positions  of  trust  and  honor,  must  give 
evidence  of  character  in  most  unexpected  ways.  A  business 
man  knows,  when  he  reads  the  letter  of  an  applicant  for  a  posi- 
tion, whether  he  may  safely  employ  the  applicant  or  not.  He 
knows  this  not  only  by  observing  the  penmanship  and  indi- 
viduality of  the  letter,  but  also  by  the  spelling  of  the  words 
used  in  the  letter.  (2)  What  is  true  of  written  intercourse 
with  business  men,  is  equally  true  of  social  letters,  literary 
products,  and  scientific  treatises.  We  think  better  of  our  cor- 
respondents when  they  spell  well.  We  could  not  tolerate  bad 
spelling  in  literature  and  scientific  treatises.  There  is  no 
reason  why  these  ideals  should  not  be  respected  in  our  school 
curriculum.  (3)  It  is  to  be  deplored,  therefore,  that  spelling 
has  fallen  into  such  great  neglect  as  facts  at  present  show,  and 
the  evil  should  be  corrected  in  all  grades  of  our  schools. 


COMPOSITION  169 

CHAPTER    yi. 

COMPOSITION. 

The  purpose  in  hand  requires  reference  to  (1)  The  Nature 
of  Composition,  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Composition. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  COMPOSITION. 

The  nature  of  composition  is  conveniently  treated  under  the 
following  heads:  (1)  The  Selection  of  a  Subject;  (2)  The 
Cumulation  of  Materials ;  (3)  The  Plan  of  Construction  ;  and 
(4)  The  Construction  of  a  Composition. 

The  Selection  of  a  Subject.  In  the  ultimate  sense,  com- 
position, as  the  origin  of  the  word  denotes,  is  not  cumulation, 
but  construction.  If  composition  were  only  cumulation,  and 
not  also  construction,  any  collection  of  materials  would  serve 
the  purpose  as  well  as  any  other.  The  supreme  concern  would 
then  be  to  fill  up  space.  If,  as  indicated,  composition  is  con- 
struction, the  selection  of  a  subject  must  be  the  first  task. 
The  selection  of  a  subject  in  composition  determines  what 
materials  ought  to  be  accumulated,  and  what  plan  of  construc- 
tion is  most  appropriate,  just  as  in  architecture  the  species  of 
building  to  be  erected  determines  these  matters.  The  mate- 
rials and  plan  that  will  do  for  a  story,  for  example,  will  not 
do  at  all  for  a  thesis,  just  as  the  materials  and  plan  for  a 
cottage  will  not  do  for  a  fortress. 

The  Cumulation  of  Materials.  In  architecture  the  two 
important  considerations  are  (1)  the  plan  of  the  house,  and  (2) 
the  material  resources.  The  man  of  means  need  not  count 
the  costs  beforehand,  when  he  is  about  to  build  a  house.  For 
him  it  is  possible  to  plan  the  house  to  suit  his  taste,  and  to  let 


170         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  costs  be  what  they  will.  But  the  man  of  limited  means 
should  first  examine  his  bank  account,  and  then  plan  his  house 
within  his  means.  In  composition,  as  in  architecture,  the  two 
important  considerations  after  selecting  a  subject,  are  (1)  the 
plan  of  construction,  and  (2)  the  material  resources.  The  man 
of  large  mental  resources  need  not  count  the  costs  beforehand, 
when  he  is  about  to  write  a  composition.  For  him  it  is  pos- 
sible to  plan  the  construction  according  to  the  ends  in  view, 
regardless  of  the  mental  costs.  But  the  man  of  limited  men- 
tal means  should  first  ascertain  his  resources,  and  then  plan 
his  composition. 

If  the  materials  are  collected  before  the  plan  of  construc- 
tion is  matured,  a  tentative  plan  should  be  followed  in  the  col- 
lection. In  that  event,  it  is  true,  the  supply  may  exceed  the 
demand  of  the  ultimate  plan  ;  but  this  is  infinitely  better  than 
poverty  in  supply.  Indeed,  the  supply  of  materials  should 
be  much  greater  than  the  demand.  In  that  event  critical 
selection  of  materials  becomes  possible,  and  this  is  a  most 
desirable  possibility. 

The  Plan  of  Construction.  When  the  collection  of  mate- 
rials has  been  accomplished,  the  tentative  plan  of  structure 
should  be  developed  into  an  ultimate  plan.  The  plan  of  a 
composition  is  commonly  termed  Outline,  or  Synopsis.  A 
synopsis  in  composition  is  a  "draught"  for  the  composer. 
It  represents  the  phases  of  the  subject,  and  therefore  serves  as 
a  frame  or  skeleton  for  the  collected  materials.  The  composer 
simply  covers  this  frame,  or  clothes  the  skeleton,  with  suitable 
materials,  and  thus  completes  the  structure.  In  order  that  a 
synopsis  may  serve  its  purpose,  it  must  be  specific,  i.e.,  it  must 
be  designed  for  the  particular  species  of  composition  to  be 
constructed. 

Species  of  Composition.  The  species  of  composition  are  as 
follows  :  (1)  Description,  (2)  Narration,  (3)  Letters,  (4)  Essays, 
(5)  Orations,  and  (6)  Poems. 


COMPOSITION  171 

(1)  A  composition  devoted  to  the  qualities  of  an  object,  per- 
son, scene,  or  phenomenon,  is  termed  a  Description.  (2)  A. 
composition  concerned  with  events,  whether  they  be  fictitious  or 
true,  is  termed  a  Narration.  Tales,  stories,  anecdotes,  biogra- 
phy, history,  novels,  etc.,  are  species  of  narration,  (3)  A  Letter 
is  a  written  communication  from  one  person  to  another.  The 
species  of  letters  are  didactic,  news,  official,  commeicial,  in- 
troductory, etc.  (4)  A  brief  composition  devoted  to  the  ex- 
pression of  opinions  on  important  subjects,  is  termed  an  Essay. 
Editorials,  reviews,  etc.,  are  common  examples  of  essays.  A 
Thesis  is  a  lengthy  and  logical  essay  on  some  dignified  subject. 
A  text-book  is  a  thesis.  (5)  A  composition  intended  for  hear- 
ers, is  termed  an  Oration.  Speeches,  addresses,  lectures,  ser- 
mons, etc.,  are  species  of  oration.  (6)  A  metrical  composition 
constructed  to  please  the  taste,  is  termed  a  Poem.  Hymns 
are  poems. 

The  skeleton  of  a  description  should  promote  organic 
sequence  in  construction;  that  of  narration,  chronological 
sequence  ;  and  that  of  essays  or  orations,  syllogistic  sequence. 
The  following  outlines  are  illustrations  of  these  requirements. 


A  THEEMOMETEE.     {Description.) 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Vaeiations  in  temperature. 

2.  The  need  of  exact  measurement  of  tempera- 

ture. 

THE  INVENTION  OF  THE  THERMOMETER. 

1.  It  had  long  been  noticed  that  bodies  expand 

and  shrink. 

2.  This  suggested  the  possibility  of  constructing 

A  thermometer. 


172         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  THEKMOMETER. 

1.  a  hollow  tube  with  bulb  is  needed. 

2.  The  bulb  is  filled  with  meecury. 

3.  A  VACUUM  is  left  above. 

4.  How  THE   MEASUEING   IS   DONE. 

1.  The  tube  is  fixed  in  a  marhed  plate. 

2.  The  degrees  are  counted  upwards. 

5.  How  THE  SCALE   IS   MADE. 

1.  The  tube  is  immersed  in  melting  ice  for  the  freezing^ 

point. 

2.  Plunged  into  steam  for  the  boiling-point. 

3.  The  intervening  space  is  divided  into  equal  spaces. 

CONCLUSION:  ITS  USES. 

1.  To  COMPAEE  THE  HEAT  OF   DIFFEEENT  CLIMATES. 

2.  In  THE  AETS. 

FIVE  YEARS'   EXPERIENCE  WITH  A   SUNDAY-SCHOOL 

CLASS. 

( Clark's  Practical  Rhetoric. )     [Narration. ) 

INTRODUCTION. 

MY  HESITATION  ABOUT  TAKING  THE  CLASS,  AND  THE 
FIRST  SABBATH. 

THE  CLASS. 

1.  Original  members. 

2.  Changes. 

THE  PUPILS. 

1.  Peesonal  appearance. 

2.  Characters. 

3.  Home  Surroundings. 


COMPOSITION  173 

THE  WORK. 

1.  Difficulties. 

2.  Willingness  of  the  children  to  learn. 

3.  New  perplexities. 

4.  One  benefit. 

MEMORIES. 

1.  The  SUNDAY-SCHOOL  HOUR. 

2.  Confidence  and  good-will  of  the  children. 

3.  A  death-bed. 

4.  A  Christmas  morning. 

SCHOLARS    AT    PRESENT,  AND   A  THOUGHT    ABOUT    THE 
FUTURE. 

CONCLUSION. 

WILLIAM  SHAKESPEAEB.     {Biography.) 
INTRODUCTION. 

1.  The  rarity  of  masters  in  literature. 

2.  Reference  to  several  masters. 

THE  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  SHAKESPEARE'S  BIRTH. 

1.  Date. 

1.  Character  of  the  Times. 

2.  Place. 

3.  Parents. 

CHILDHOOD  AND  YOUTH. 

1.  Opportunities. 

2.  Habits. 

3.  Incidents  and  anecdotes. 

4.  Crises. 


174         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
MANHOOD. 

1.  Talents. 

2.  Occupation. 

3.  Achievements. 

4.  Critical  estimates. 

1.  Shakespeare^ s  character. 

2.  Shakespear^s  works. 

3.  Shakespeare's  enduring  fame. 

CONCLUSION. 

1.  Death. 

1.  Obsequies. 

2.  nesting  place. 

3.  Reflections. 

HABITS.     (^Msay.) 
INTEODUCTION. 

1.  Interesting  anecdotes. 
What  is  a  habit? 

How  DOES  anything  become  a  habit?    Examples. 
What  habits  are  possible? 

1.  A  very  important  possibility. 
What  habits  should  we  cultivate? 

1 .  TTie  governing  considerations. 

2.  Good  habits  enumerated  and  defined. 

3.  The  uiorth  of  good  habits. 

The  persistency  of  habits.     Examples. 

1 .  How  to  destroy  bad  habits.     Anecdotes. 

2.  The  curse  of  evil  habits. 

CONCLUSION. 

1.  How  careful  we  should  be  informing  habits. 


COMPOSITION  175 

WILL.     (Thesis.) 
INTEODUCTION. 

1.  The  ability    to   govern   ourselves   is   termed 

WILL. 

2.  Any  exercise  of  this  ability  is  termed  will- 

ing, OR  volition. 

THE  NATURE  OF  WILL. 

1.  Motives.     The  influences  that  enter,  but  do  not  irresist- 

ibly determine,  a  voluntary  struggle,  are  termed  Mo- 
tives. 

2.  Decision.     The  voluntary  selection  of  an  alternative, 

after  comparing  it  with  others,  is  termed  Decision. 

1.  Intention.     The  voluntary  selection  of  an  alter- 

native   whose    attainment  is   prospective,   is 
termed  Intention. 

(1)  Vigorous  intention  is  termed  Purpose. 

Examples. 

(2)  Invincible   purpose  is  termed    Resolu- 

tion.    Examples. 

2.  Attention.     The  voluntary  and  uninterrupted  se- 

lection of  one  alternative  rather  than  others, 
is  termed  Attention. 

THE  CULTIVATION  OF  WILL. 

1.  Development  of   noble  conceptions  and  feel- 

ings. 

2.  Vigorous  and  resolute  activity  in  all  tasks. 

3.  The  pupil's  efforts  must  be  stimulated,  super- 

vised, assisted. 

CONCLUSION. 

1.  The  worth  of  will. 

2.  The  importance  of  its  culture. 


176         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

THE  PEOBABILITIES.     {Lecture.) 

INTRODUCTION. 

NOW  ON  THE  WAY  TO  BE  TEACHERS. 

1.  The  influences  hitherto  at  woek  in  you. 

2.  The  difference  of  personal  attitude. 

1.  Eads  in  view. 

2.  The  "  hearf'  in  each  attitude. 

3.  Resolution,  weak  or  strong. 

THE  PROBABILITIES. 

1.  There  will  be  work  for  you  to  do. 

1.  TTie  demand  for  teachers. 

2.  Prudent  preparation,  "  Professional  Training." 

2.  Whether  you  will  be  worthy  of  so  noble  a 

calling,  must  depend  to  a  great  extent  on 
your  own  efforts. 

1.  Exercise  is  the  price  of  culture. 

1.  In  it  must  be  a  good  head. 

2.  In  it  must  be  a  whole  heart. 

3.  In  it  must  be  a  set  purpose. 

2.  Study  is  the  price  of  vdsdom. 

1.  In  it  must  be  humility. 

2.  In  it  must  be  constancy. 

3.  In  it  must  be  vigor. 

3.  The  lives  of  many  will  be  put  into  your  keep- 

ing FOR  WEAL  OR  WOE.   ThUS  IT  APPEARS  IM- 
PORTANT, 

1.  That  you  should  understand  your  business. 

2.  And  that  you  should  mind  your  busmess. 

CONCLUSION. 


COMPOSITION  177 

The  Construction  of  a  Composition.  "  A  mass  of  mate- 
rials, however  fine  the  quality,  no  more  constitutes  a  composi- 
tion than  a  pile  of  bricks  and  lumber  constitutes  a  palace. 
The  builder  must  select,  fit,  and  join  together  the  materials 
before  there  is  a  building."  The  parts  of  the  frame,  or  skele- 
ton, in  composition,  represent,  as  it  has  been  explained,  the 
phases  of  the  subject,  and  determine  what  materials  to  use  in 
completing  the  structure.  Therefore,  when  the  framework 
of  the  proposed  composition  has  been  erected,  the  collected 
thoughts  must  be  arranged  as  required  by  the  framework. 

In  order  to  obtain  favor,  a  composition  must  be  brought 
into  connection  with  the  occasion.  This  is  generally  accom- 
plished by  means  of  (1)  reference  to  current  events,  (2)  anec- 
dotes, (3)  striking  statement  of  the  propositions  to  be  discussed, 
etc.  The  portion  of  the  composition  devoted  to  this  purpose, 
is  termed  the  Introduction.  The  portion  of  the  composition 
that  expresses  the  message  to  be  expressed,  is  termed  the  Body 
of  the  composition.  A  composition  should  produce  definite 
and  desirable  consequences  in  readers  or  hearers.  This  is 
generally  accomplished  by  (1)  a  recapitulation  of  arguments, 
(2)  an  appeal  to  the  feelings,  etc.  The  portion  of  the  compo- 
sition devoted  to  this  purpose,  is  termed  the  Conclusion. 
Thus  it  appears  that  the  necessary  parts  of  a  formal  composi- 
tion are  the  Introduction,  the  Body,  and  the  Conclusion. 
These  requirements  need  not  be  insisted  on  in  an  informal 
composition. 

Mechanical  Execution.  (1)  If  the  composition  occupies  only 
one  page,  let  us  say  a  page  of  foolscap,  the  subject  is  to  be  writ- 
ten on  the  top  line,  between  equal  margins.  The  text  is  to  begin 
on  the  third  line,  an  inch  or  more  from  the  margin  of  the  page. 
After  neatly  folding  the  upper  and  the  lower  third  of  the  page 
upon  the  middle  third,  the  subject,  the  name  of  the  writer,  the 
date,  etc.,  should  be  written  crosswise  upon  the  middle  third. 
Taste  in  arrangement  is  very  desirable.    (2)  If  the  composition 

12 


178         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

occupies  a  number  of  pages,  as  in  the  case  of  a  thesis,  the  first 
page  should  be  devoted  to  the  statement  of  the  subject,  the  name 
of  the  writer,  the  date,  etc.  Only  one  page  of  a  sheet  should 
be  used.  The  synopsis,  or  skeleton,  should  be  written  on  the 
third  page.  The  subject  of  a  composition,  appropriately  and 
interestingly  stated,  should  be  written  on  the  first  line  of  the 
fifth  page.  The  following  line  should  not  be  used.  The  In- 
troduction should  begin  on  the  third  line,  with  the  usual  mar- 
gin of  an  inch  or  more.  Headings  of  the  sections  of  a  chapter 
should  be  written  across  the  page  with  one  line  unoccupied  be- 
fore and  after  them.  (3)  That  which  is  said  about  each  phase 
of  the  subject,  as  represented  by  the  skeleton,  is  termed  a 
Paragraph.  Each  paragraph  is  a  composition  in  itself,  and 
all  the  paragraphs  taken  together  in  their  true  order,  constitute 
the  com  position- whole.  The  subject  of  each  paragraph  should 
be  stated  in  appropriate  words,  and  concisely.  This  statement, 
or  heading,  should  be  written  on  the  first  line  of  the  paragraph, 
underscored,  and  separated  from  the  first  sentence  by  a  period 
and  considerable  space.  When  no  paragraph  headings  are 
used,  as  in  subordinate  paragraphs,  the  first  line  of  the  para- 
graph should  begin  an  inch  or  more  from  the  left  margin  of 
the  page.  A  paragraph  should  never  begin  on  the  unfinished 
line  of  a  preceding  paragraph.  The  paragraphs  should  be  as 
perfect  as  possible  in  the  choice  of  words,  correctness  and  effec- 
tiveness of  sentences,  figures  of  speech,  punctuation,  capitals, 
illustrations,  quotations,  etc. 

Finishing  Touches.  Improprieties  and  errors  in  a  com- 
position should  be  criticised  and  corrected. 

Criticism.  Errors  and  improprieties  will  creep  into  a  com- 
position, do  what  we  may  to  keep  them  out.  Among  the  de- 
fects that  commonly  creep  into  a  composition  are  (1)  the  choice 
of  inferior  thoughts,  (2)  an  inferior  plan  of  structure,  (3)  de- 
fective junction  of  paragraphs,  (4)  weak  illustrations  and  quo- 
tations, (5)  poor  taste  in  figures  of  speech,  (G)  faulty  vocabu- 


COMPOSITION  179 

lary,  (7)  iucorrect  spelling,  (8)  poor  penmanship,  (9)  faulty 
sentences,  (10)  defective  punctuation,  (11)  errors  in  capitaliza- 
tion, (12)  carelessness  in  details.  These  imperfections,  whether 
they  be  matter  or  form,  are  injurious  to  the  composition.  The 
writer  should  therefore  repeatedly  revise  his  production,  and 
the  revision  should  be  both  critical  and  unsparing. 

Correction.  The  author  of  a  composition  may  be  very  con- 
scientious in  revision,  and  yet  fail  to  perfect  his  composition. 
It  requires  years  of  discipline  to  become  an  adept  in  the  busi- 
ness of  composing.  Until  the  composer  has  become  a  master 
in  his  art,  supervision  and  assistance  must  be  added  to  re- 
vision. In  other  words,  a  superior  must  point  out  imperfec- 
tions and  assist  the  writer  in  perfecting  a  composition. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  COMPOSITION. 

The  teacher  of  composition,  as  we  must  infer  from  the 
nature  of  the  tasks  in  question,  should  understand  (1)  Super- 
vision in  Composition,  (2)  The  Principles  of  Procedure,  (3)  The 
Courses  of  Lessons,  and  (4)  The  Importance  of  Composition. 

Supervision  in  Composition.  The  teacher's  supervision 
in  composition,  as  we  know  from  the  tasks  of  the  pupil,  must 
extend  over  (1)  The  Selection  of  a  Subject,  (2)  The  Cumula- 
tion of  Materials,  (3)  The  Plan  of  Construction,  (4)  The  Con- 
struction of  the  Composition,  and  (5)  The  Finish. 

Effective  Selection  of  Subjects.  There  are  three  govern- 
ing considerations  in  the  selection  of  subjects  for  compositions  : 
(1)  The  subject  should  be  suitable  in  itself;  (2)  The  subject 
should  be  suited  to  the  writer's  present  powers ;  and  (3)  The 
subject  should  be  suited  to  the  occasion. 

Effective  Cumulation  of  Materials.  Among  the  govern- 
ing considerations  in  collecting  thoughts  and  language  for  a 
composition,  are  the  following  :  (1)  The  method  of  cumulation 
should  be  consistent  with  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Within 
the  domain  of  experience,  for  example,  observation  is  more 


180         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

effective  than  reading.  (2)  The  cumulation  should  be  con- 
sistent with  the  composer's  constructive  powers.  The  young 
writer,  for  example,  should  not  attempt  to  collect  abstract  and 
general  thoughts.  (3)  The  cumulation  should  be  consistent 
with  the  purpose  of  the  composition.  The  occasion,  the  intel- 
ligence of  the  reader  or  hearer,  etc.,  must  be  considered  in 
collecting  materials  of  thought  and  language. 

Effective  Planning  of  the  Composition.  Among  the 
governing  considerations  in  the  plan  of  a  composition  are  the 
following :  (1)  The  plan  of  construction  should  be  consistent 
with  the  species  of  composition  to  be  constructed.  The  plan 
of  a  story,  for  example,  would  not  do  for  a  thesis.  (2)  The 
plan  of  construction  should  be  the  most  suitable  framework  for 
the  materials  to  be  employed  in  construction.  It  should  be  a 
guide  in  collecting  materials  and  a  skeleton  for  the  composi- 
tion to  be  constructed.  (3)  The  tentative  plan  used  in  collect- 
ing materials  should  be  critically  revised  until  it  becomes  most 
effective.  When  it  has  become  a  habit  to  plan  compositions, 
and  to  persevere  in  the  efforts  to  find  the  best  plan,  great 
progress  has  been  made  toward  mastery  in  composition. 

Effective  Construction  of  the  Composition.  Among 
the  governing  considerations,  in  writing  out  a  composition, 
are  the  following:  (1)  A  composition  should  be  constructed 
in  obedience  to  the  plan  of  construction.  Deviations  should 
be  attempted  only  for  good  reasons.  (2)  The  collected  mate- 
rials of  thought  should  be  arranged  in  the  most  effective  way. 
This  requirement  refers  to  the  development  of  the  paragraphs, 
the  possible  arrangements  being  either  inductive  or  deductive, 
analytic,  or  synthetic.  (3)  The  language  of  a  composition 
should  be  choice  and  effective.  This  requirement  refers  to  the 
selection  of  words,  the  structure  of  sentences,  the  figures  of 
speech,  the  taste  in  mechanical  execution,  the  punctuation,  the 
capitals,  etc.     This  is  the  domain  of  Style. 

Diction.     The  selection  and  use  of  words,  is  termed  Die- 


COMPOSITION  181 

tion.  The  effective  qualities  of  diction  are  (1)  Purity,  (2) 
Propriety,  and  (3)  Precision.  A  word  is  pure  when  it  is  used 
by  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  A  word  is  appropriate  when 
it  expresses  the  writer's  meaning.  A  word  is  precise  when  it 
expresses  the  writer's  meaning  exactly. 

The  Structure  of  Sentences.  The  arrangement  of  the  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses,  of  a  sentence,  is  termed  its  Structure. 
The  desirable  qualities  of  a  sentence  are,  (1)  Concord,  (2) 
Clearness,  (3)  Unity,  (4)  Energy,  and  (5)  Harmony.  A  sen- 
tence has  Concord  when  it  does  not  violate  the  laws  of  gram- 
mar. A  sentence  has  Clearness  when  its  meaning  cannot  be 
mistaken.  A  sentence  has  Unity  when  its  parts  are  closely 
related.  A  sentence  has  Energy  when  its  words  are  so  selected 
and  placed  as  to  convey  the  thought  with  force.  A  sentence 
has  Harmony  when  its  utterance  is  pleasant  and  suggestive  to 
the  ear. 

Figures  of  Speech.  Deviations  from  the  ordinary  modes  of 
speech,  are  termed  Figures  of  Speech.  There  are  four  species 
of  figures :  (1)  Figures  of  Orthography,  (2)  Figures  of  Ety- 
mology, (3)  Figures  of  Syntax,  and  (4)  Figures  of  Rhetoric. 
Expressions  in  which  the  mode  of  thought  is  changed,  are 
termed  Figures  of  Rhetoric.  Among  the  most  desirable 
figures  of  rhetoric  are  Simile,  Metaphor,  and  Personification. 
A  Simile  expresses  the  likeness  of  several  objects,  actions,  or 
relations.  Ex.  "Reason  is  to  faith  as  the  eye  to  the  tele- 
scope." A  Metaphor  implies  the  likeness  of  several  objects, 
actions,  or  relations.  Ex.  "Her  smile  was  the  dawn  of  a 
radiant  day."  A  Personification  attributes  life  and  mind  to 
beings  that  are  not  persons.  Ex.  "  The  very  stones  of  Rome 
will  rise  in  mutiny."  Figures  of  rhetoric,  because  of  the 
grace  and  force  which  they  add  to  discourse,  should  be  studied 
and  introduced  with  taste  into  composition.  Reference  to 
some  treatise  on  Rhetoric  will  be  necessary  in  this  task  of 
composition. 


182         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Taste  in  Comjjosition.  Appreciation  of  proprieties  is  termed 
Taste.  Good  taste  is  a  respect  for  beauty,  sublimity,  pathos,  and 
humor.  Good  taste  in  composition  also  respects  mechanical 
adaptations,  such  as  places  on  the  page,  the  uses  of  spaces,  etc. 

Punctuation  and  Capitals,  etc.  No  composition  is  complete 
unless  its  punctuation  and  capitals  are  correct.  The  details  can- 
not be  enumerated  here.  The  instructor  in  composition  must 
study  these  matters  in  some  treatise  on  Rhetoric.  The  same 
holds  true  of  instruction  in  Prosody. 

Effective  Finish.  The  removal  of  imperfections  that  were 
not  noticed  in  writing  out  the  composition,  is  termed  Finish, 
It  corresponds  to  the  process  denoted  by  the  same  name  in  the 
mechanical  arts,  such  as  architecture,  sculpture,  etc,  EflPective 
finish  is  the  removal  of  all  those  crudities  and  blemishes  that 
offend  good  taste. 

Principles  of  Instruction.  The  principles  of  instruction, 
as  stated  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  that  purpose,  are  applica- 
ble to  all  branches  of  study.  Several  of  them  (the  Second  and 
Tenth)  need  to  be  emphasized  in  their  application  to  composi- 
tion. From  the  Second  Principle  of  Instruction  we  derive  the 
following  modified  form  :  The  learner  should  be  led  to  see 
how  talking  and  writing  are  related.  From  the  Tenth  Prin- 
ciple of  Instruction  we  derive  the  following  modified  forms : 
(1)  Instruction  in  the  art  of  language  should  precede  instruc- 
tion in  the  science  of  language ;  (2)  The  art  of  language  should 
be  perfected  by  the  science  of  language ;  and  (3)  The  courses 
of  instruction  in  language  should  be  graded  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex. 

1.  The  learner  should  be  led  to  see  how  talking  and  writing  are 
related.  Children  are  inclined  to  think  that  composing  is  en- 
tirely different  from  talking,  and  far  more  difficult.  This 
notion  often  causes  them  to  dread  composition,  and  to  be  un- 
natural in  their  attempts  to  compose.  It  is  therefore  quite 
important  to  correct  all  such   notions.     The  pupils  must  be 


COMPOSITION  183 

made  to  see  first  of  all  that  it  is  possible  to  torite  thoughts  as 
well  as  to  talk  thoughts,  and  that  writing  and  talking  are 
somewhat  equivalent  as  modes  of  expressing  tlioughts.  This 
point  cleared  up,  it  becomes  evident  to  pupils  that  composing 
is  not  an  attempt  to  say  what  they  do  not  know  or  cannot 
think,  but  just  the  opposite.  The  relation  of  talking  and 
writing  is  best  taught  by  requiring  pupils  to  talk  their  thoughts 
before  writing  them,  and  to  write  them  just  as  they  would  talk 
them. 

2.  Instruction  in  the  art  of  language  should  precede  instruc- 
tion in  the  science  of  language.  Unlettered  people  express  their 
thoughts  in  speech  and  writing  without  thinking  of  parts  of 
speech,  rules  of  grammar,  requirements  of  rhetoric,  etc.  Homer 
wrote  the  Iliad  without  a  knowledge  of  these  requirements.  It 
is  true  enough,  however,  that  such  attempts  are  often  crude 
and  imperfect.  The  desire  to  improve  language  as  a  vehicle 
of  thought,  prompted  inquiry  into  the  structure  of  words,  sen- 
tences, etc.  And  thus  in  time  the  laws  of  language  were  ascer- 
tained. In  other  words,  the  science  of  language  was  developed 
from  the  art  of  language.  Thus  it  becomes  evident  that  in- 
struction in  the  art  of  language  should  precede  instruction  in 
the  science  of  language.  Indeed,  this  has  become  the  govern- 
ing principle  in  the  construction  of  modern  text-books  on 
grammar,  rhetoric,  etc.  The  introductory  courses  in  these 
branches  are  designed  to  develop  imitative  faculty  in  composi- 
tion rather  than  critical  insight. 

3.  The  art  of  language  should  be  perfected  by  the  science  of 
language.  Imitative  faculty  in  composition  is  an  inestimable 
attainment,  but  critical  insight  is  the  necessary  complement  of 
imitative  faculty.  In  other  words,  the  composer  who  can  jus- 
tify his  imitations  and  correct  imperfections  by  reference  to 
principles,  is  a  superior  workman.  If,  for  example,  a  pupil 
should  punctuate  a  sentence  as  he  has  seen  it  punctuated,  and 
then  give  the  reasons ;  or,  if  he  can  correct  errors  In  sentences, 


184         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

and  give  the  reasons  according  to  grammar  and  rhetoric,  he  is 
certainly  more  fortunate  than  a  pupil  who  can  only  imitate 
sentences,  etc.,  without  knowing  the  reasons  or  the  principles 
of  language  involved.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  grammar,  rhetoric,  etc.,  are  indispensable  to  mastery 
in  composition.  Accordingly,  the  pupil  should  in  due  time 
be  led  to  see  these  principles,  and  to  govern  himself  by  them. 
In  short,  the  art  of  language  should  be  perfected  by  the  science 
of  language. 

4.  The  courses  of  instruction  in  language  should  be  graded 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  According  to  the  Tenth  Prin- 
ciple of  Instruction,  introductory  courses,  as  well  as  subsequent 
courses  in  any  study,  should  require  the  learner  to  supplement 
his  observations  by  induction  and  deduction.  There  are  two 
governing  considerations  in  the  correct  application  of  this  prin- 
ciple :  (1)  The  stages  of  mental  development  should  be  ascer- 
tained and  respected.  These  stages  of  comparatively  greater 
functional  activity  and  aptitude  are,  (1)  The  perceptive  stage, 
(2)  The  conceptive  stage  (memory,  imagination,  and  general- 
ization), and  (3)  The  reflective  stage  (induction,  deduction). 
The  teacher  should  ascertain  the  particular  mental  epoch  at 
which  his  pupil  has  arrived,  and  then  adjust  the  tasks  which 
he  assigns.  In  the  perceptive  epoch,  for  example,  the  exer- 
cises in  composition  should  not  demand  too  much  generaliza- 
tion, and  very  little  reflection.  In  the  conceptive  epoch  the 
tasks  may  become  somewhat  more  abstract,  and  in  the  reflec- 
tive epoch  they  should  require  inductive  discovery  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  composition  and  deductive  conformity,  as  well  as  logi- 
cal reflection  on  the  subject  of  composition.  (2)  There  should 
be  a  progressive  transition  from  simple  to  complex  tasks  in 
composition.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  adjustments  recognize 
perceptive,  conceptive,  and  reflective  epochs  in  composition, 
and  the  relative  preponderance  of  one  aptitude  over  others  in 
each  epoch.     There  must  be  a  further  adjustment  within  each 


COMPOSITION  185 

of  these  adjustments.  The  perceptive  tasks,  for  example,  must 
be  easy  at  first,  and  then  more  and  more  difficult.  The  same 
prudence  in  assigning  conceptive  and  reflective  tasks  is  desira- 
ble. In  short,  the  courses  of  instruction  in  composition  should 
be  graded  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  The  following 
courses  are  designed  to  satisfy  these  needs. 

I.  ELEMENTARY  COUESE. 

The  tasks  assigned  to  this  course  are  intended  for  children 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve.  It  will  be  observed  that 
more  perceptive  activity  is  required  at  first,  and  then  in- 
creasingly more  conceptive  efibrt,  but  only  a  minimum  of  re- 
flective attention.  (First  Principle  of  Instruction.)  The  tasks 
are  also  more  simple  in  themselves  at  first  and  more  complex 
at  last.  (Tenth  Principle  of  Instruction.)  These  elementary 
exercises  need  not  come  in  the  order  here  adopted,  but  should 
be  gradually  so  combined  that  every  subsequent  composition 
will  require  the  pupil  to  use  all  his  previous  attainments.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  Elementary  Course,  as  also  the 
Intermediate  and  Higher  Courses,  as  here  outlined,  are  only 
outlines,  and  that  they  need  to  be  supplemented  by  the  teacher 
in  many  ways. 

1.  Writing  the  names  of  objects.  As  soon  as  children  can 
write  they  should  be  required  to  write  the  names  of  objects : 
the  names  of  objects  in  the  school-room  ;  objects  to  be  found 
on  the  school-grounds ;  objects  observed  on  the  way  to  school ; 
objects  observed  at  home,  etc.  There  should  be  system  in  this 
exercise  from  the  beginning.  The  names  may  be  written  in 
columns,  or  in  series,  as  follows  : 

1.  Paul. 

2.  mother. 

3.  eyes.        Or :  Paul,  mother,  eyes,  slate,  dog. 

4.  slate. 

5.  dog. 


186         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Proper  care  should  be  taken  of  neatness,  spelling,  numbers, 
periods,  commas,  capitals,  etc.,  as  the  pupil  can  understand 
these  matters.     The  pupil  will  need  constant  supervision. 

2.  Writing  the  names  of  actions.  The  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  write  the  names  of  actions ;  the  names  of  ten  things 
that  a  frog,  an  owl,  a  bee,  a  mouse,  a  storm,  or  a  cloud,  have 
been  observed  to  do.  This  should  be  done  according  to  the 
directions  that  apply  to  writing  the  names  of  objects. 

3.  Wi'iting  simple  sentences.  The  pupil  should  be  required 
to  write  the  names  of  objects  joined  to  the  names  of  their 
actions ;  as.  Birds  fly ;  The  cat  mews ;  A  cloud  moves.  The 
name  of  the  object  may  be  given,  and  the  pupil  required  to  add 

the  name  of  its  action,  or  vice  versa  ;  as,  A  fish ;  A 

swims.  The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  call  these  sentences 
telling,  or  Declarative,  sentences.  As  soon  as  he  knows  how 
to  write  these  short  Declarative  sentences,  and  has  formed  the 
habit  of  using  the  capital  and  period  correctly,  he  should  learn 
to  write  asking,  or  Interrogative  sentences ;  commanding,  or 
Imperative  sentences ;  and  feeling,  or  Exclamatory  sentences. 
Special  attention  to  the  differences  in  punctuation  is  important. 
There  should  be  plenty  of  practice  and  correction. 

4.  Supplying  ellipses  in  simple  sentences.  The  pupil  should 
be  required  to  supply  the  words  wanted  in  such  sentences  as 

the  following :  Mabel  lost hat.     found  my  skates. 

The rabbit  was  killed.    Those  cakes  tasted .    Mary 

can  run .     May  I  go  you  ?     John,  be  . 

We  saw  Dora on  the  door-step.     At  first  the  pupil  should 

not  know  the  words  to  be  supplied  as  pronouns,  adjectives,  ad- 
verbs, prepositions,  participles,  etc.,  but  only  as  words  needed 
to  complete  the  sentences.  In  due  time  the  offices  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  speech  can  be  taught  by  means  of  such  ellipses. 

5.  Constructing  simple  sentences  containing  given  words  or 
'phrases.  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  construct  simple 
sentences  containing  given  words  or  phrases.    At  first  the  sen- 


COMPOSITION  187 

tences  should  contain  only  one  given  word  or  phrase.  The 
words  or  phrases  to  be  used  may  be  written  on  the  black- 
board, and  referred  to  the  pupils.  At  first  the  pupil  should 
construct  the  sentences  orally,  in  order  that  he  may  see  what 
is  required  of  him  in  writing.  When  two  or  more  words  are 
to  be  used,  the  teacher  must  select  very  carefully,  so  as  not  to 
make  the  task  too  difficult  at  first.  Phrases  should  not  be  in- 
troduced until  the  pupil  has  acquired  considerable  skill  with 
words. 

6.  Copying  and  imitating  sentences  containing  capitals,  abbre- 
viations, and  punctuation,  etc.  When  the  pupil  has  acquired 
satisfactory  skill  in  constructing  simple  sentences  that  require 
only  final  punctuation,  and  an  occasional  comma,  he  should 
be  introduced  to  simple  sentences  tliat  require  a  number  of 
punctuation  marks,  abbreviations,  and  capitals.  In  due  time 
complex,  and  finally  compound  sentences,  should  be  studied, 
the  mode  of  procedure  being  imitative. 

The  teacher  may  write  suitable  sentences  on  the  black-board, 
explain  the  punctuation  marks,  capitals,  abbreviations,  etc., 
that  occur,  require  the  pupils  to  explain  these  matters  as  well 
as  they  can,  and  then  to  copy  the  sentences,  first  at  sight,  but 
afterwards  from  memory,  until  they  can  do  so  without  awk- 
wardness or  blunder.  The  pupils  should  be  required  to  imi- 
tate these  copied  sentences,  i.e.,  to  write  original  sentences  in 
which  the  punctuation,  etc.,  is  like  that  of  the  copied  sen- 
tences. Parts  of  complex  and  compound  sentences  may  also 
be  given,  and  the  pupils  required  to  complete  them ;  as.  If 

Jane  had  not  returned, .     While 

the  house  burned  down.     "  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad 


father  ;  but ." 

The  tasks  here  proposed  require  the  teacher  to  understand 
grammar  and  rhetoric.  It  is  not  maintained  that  these  exer- 
cises should  be  continued  in  an  unbroken  series  until  the  whole 
ground  has  been  covered,  but  only  that  such  a  course  ought  to 


188         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

be  finished  in  due  time  and  according  to  circumstances.  The 
more  difficult  lessons  in  punctuation,  quotation,  abbreviation, 
etc.,  should  evidently  be  deferred  until  grammar  and  rhetoric 
are  taken  up  in  the  regular  way.  The  teacher  should  see  to 
it  that  the  tasks  which  he  assigns  at  this  stage  in  composition 
necessitate  perceptive  and  recoUective  attention,  and  concrete 
judgment,  but  not  much  reflective  effort,  and  very  little  origi- 
nal effort. 

7.  Copying  and  correcting  poems.  While  pupils  are  study- 
ing punctuation,  abbreviation,  quotation,  and  capitals,  as  indi- 
cated, they  should  also  copy  and  correct  poems.  At  first  suit- 
able poems  should  be  copied  from  books  put  into  the  pupil's 
hand.  Afterwards  the  teacher  should  dictate  concrete  poems, 
and  require  the  children  to  copy  these,  taking  care  to  get  the 
lines,  capitals,  marks,  etc.,  right.  When  these  exercises  have 
become  easy,  poems  whose  punctuation  marks,  capitals,  etc., 
are  incorrect,  should  be  corrected  by  the  pupils.  Such  ac- 
counts of  corrections  as  the  pupils  can  give  should  be  required, 
and  the  teacher  should  tolerate  no  guessing.  In  due  time  the 
more  conspicuous  distinctions  between  prose  and  poetry  should 
be  studied  ;  but  technical  distinctions  and  abstractions  should 
be  reserved  for  the  rhetoric  class. 

8.  Committing  and  reciting  choice  selections  of  prose  and 
poetry.  In  all  the  grades  of  our  schools,  the  pupils  should  be 
required  to  commit  and  recite  choice  selections  of  prose  and 
poetry.  Only  such  extracts  as,  by  reason  of  their  literary  and 
moral  excellence,  deserve  to  become  permanent  mental  posses- 
sions, should  be  committed  by  the  pupils.  The  teacher  should 
not  allow  these  extracts  to  be  recited  in  parrot  fashion,  but 
thoughtfully.  This  thoughtfulness  will  become  a  habit,  if 
questions  must  be  answered  by  the  pupil  in  connection  with 
the  recitations.  The  practice  here  advocated  "  will  cultivate 
a  literary  taste,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  artistic  excellence 
in  the  use  of  language." 


COMPOSITION  189 

9.  Constructing  original  sentences  containing  capitals,  punctu- 
ations, abbreviations,  quotations,  etc.  The  exercises  described 
in  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  required  very  little  original  think- 
ing. In  connection  with  these  imitative  lessons,  corresponding 
original  tasks  should  be  assigned.  These  original  tasks  should 
increase  in  difficulty  with  the  increasing  maturity  of  the  pupil. 
As  in  the  imitative  lessons,  and  parallel  with  the  stages  of  their 
difficulty,  so  in  these  original  tasks,  the  sentences  should  at  first 
be  only  simple  in  species ;  but  all  the  varieties  of  punctuation, 
etc.,  should  be  cultivated.  The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  how 
a  number  of  separate,  but  related  sentences,  can  be  reduced  to 
one  sentence,  either  simple,  complex,  or  compound.  When 
the  pupils  have  observed  the  teacher  doing  so,  they  may  be 
required  to  do  the  same  with  analogous  sentences,  orally  at 
first,  and  then  in  writing.  When  it  seems  the  right  time  to 
cultivate  originality  in  complex  and  compound  sentences,  the 
teacher  should  take  great  pains  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  what 
is  wanted.  Moreover,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure 
the  interest  of  the  pupils.  Patient  practice  in  constructing 
original  sentences,  simple,  complex,  and  compound,  is  the  in- 
dispensable preparatory  course  in  composition. 

10.  Writing  simpjle  letters.  Long  before  the  preceding  ex- 
ercises can  be  required  in  full,  probably  as  soon  as  pupils  have 
acquired  considerable  skill  in  constructing  simple  sentences, 
simple  letters  should  be  written.  The  teacher  should  first  lead 
the  child  to  see  what  a  letter  is.  This  can  be  done  by  writing 
illustrative  letters  on  the  blackboard,  and  explaining  the  parts. 
The  letters  of  children,  as  published  in  educational  periodicals 
and  elsewhere,  may  also  be  read  to  them  and  inspected  by  them. 
When  properly  supervised,  pupils  will  soon  become  quite  skil- 
ful in  writing  accounts  of  personal  experience,  descriptions  of 
visits,  etc.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  write  to  their  rela- 
tives and  friends,  expressing  their  thoughts  just  as  they  would 
if  they  were  conversing  with  them  face  to  face.     The  arrange- 


190         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS   OF  TEACHING 

ment  of  the  letter,  the  construction  of  sentences,  the  punctua- 
tion, the  spelling,  etc.,  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible.  The 
corrected  letters  should  be  copied  and  preserved  in  a  book. 

11.  Describing  objects.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  ob- 
serve some  object  critically,  and  then  to  describe  it  truthfully. 
Sometimes  children  cannot  think  of  all  that  they  know  about 
something.  By  means  of  appropriate  questions,  the  child  may 
be  led  to  think  of  his  knowledge,  and  to  discover  more  than 
he  could  find  out  unaided.  Children  should  also  be  required 
to  describe  absent  objects,  or  phenomena,  such  as  a  meadow,  a 
sunset,  a  wagon,  a  chestnut  tree,  a  rabbit,  etc.  These  exer- 
cises develop  accuracy  and  vigor  in  descriptive  composition ; 
and,  in  helping  to  establish  the  habit  of  critical  observation, 
they  equip  the  pupil  for  subsequent  investigations.  Attention 
to  the  thoughts  to  be  expressed  often  causes  the  novice  in  com- 
position to  forget  the  requirements  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 
penmanship,  etc.  Such  carelessness  should  not  be  tolerated  at 
any  time. 

12.  Describing  actions.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  ob- 
serve actions  critically,  and  then  to  describe  them  truthfully. 
The  actions  of  a  child,  the  movements  of  a  horse,  the  perform- 
ance of  a  trick,  the  confusions  of  an  accident,  etc.,  are  suitable 
subjects.  Properly  supervised,  children  will  not  only  enjoy 
these  exercises,  but  acquire  great  ability  in  such  description. 
Appropriate  questions  are  as  important  in  these  tasks  as  in  the 
description  of  objects.  It  may  also  be  required  of  pupils  at 
this  stage  to  write  newspaper  paragraphs.  In  order  to  show 
the  pupils  what  is  wanted,  the  teacher  may  bring  a  newspaper 
to  school  and  read  such  paragraphs  as  will  interest  them,  and 
then  require  them  to  write  little  items  in  imitation  of  those  in 
the  paper.  In  due  time  descriptions  of  current  events  should 
follow.  Accounts  of  floods,  fires,  storms,  parades,  conventions, 
elections,  inventions,  discoveries,  etc.,  are  appropriate  for  older 
pupils. 


COMPOSITION  191 

13.  Describing  pictures  and  basing  stories  on  pictures.  A 
picture,  as  it  is  well  known,  appeals  not  only  to  the  eye,  but 
also  to  the  imagination  of  children.  Pictures  are  accordingly 
of  great  value  in  language  lessons.  The  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  observe  a  picture  critically,  and  then  to  tell  what 
may  be  seen.  Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to  ask  questions 
in  order  to  lead  the  observer  to  find  what  is  to  be  found.  In- 
asmuch as  pictures  appeal  to  the  imagination,  they  may  be  em- 
ployed to  suggest  stories.  The  children  will  readily  invent 
such  stories  provided  the  teacher  starts  the  process  and  pre- 
serves the  thread  by  means  of  skilful  questions  and  suggestions. 
Appropriate  pictures  may  be  found  in  school-books,  or  brought 
by  teacher  and  pupils.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  only 
such  pictures  are  used  as  are  festhetically  and  morally  fit. 

14.  Writing  anecdotes  and  narratives.  There  is  magic  in 
anecdotes  and  narratives.  The  young  mind  loves  them ;  the 
old  mind  lives  in  them.  The  power  to  relate  anecdotes  and  to 
tell  stories,  is  a  most  effective  equipment  in  teaching  language 
lessons.  There  are  three  stages  to  observe  in  teaching  anec- 
dotes and  stories :  (1)  At  first  the  teacher  should  relate  the 
anecdote  or  tell  the  story,  the  pupils  listening  attentively  all 
through  the  procedure.  Then  the  pupil,  assisted  by  questions, 
if  that  be  necessary,  should  repeat  the  substance  of  the  anecdote 
or  story,  orally  at  first,  and  then  in  writing.  (2)  Anecdotes 
and  stories  may  be  told  in  short  sentences,  either  orally  or  in 
writing.  When  the  teacher  has  thus  put  the  pupils  on  the 
track,  they  should  be  required  to  expand  these  short  sentences, 
supplying  what  seems  necessary  to  complete  the  structure. 
(3)  To  older  pupils  only  an  outline  should  be  submitted,  and 
they  should  be  required  to  construct  the  story  themselves. 
This  last  task  is  quite  difficult,  inasmuch  as  it  requires  concep- 
tive  and  inventive  effort;  but  the  exercise  brings  excellent 
results. 

Note.     The  incomparable  stories  of  Grimm,  Hans  Christian 


192         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Andersen,  and  other  writers  of  stories  for  children,  should  be 
studied  by  teachers,  in  order  to  imbibe  the  inspiration  that 
ought  to  belong  to  this  species  of  instruction. 

II.  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE. 

(1)  In  the  Elementary  Course  the  stress  was  laid  on  per- 
ceptive and  recoUective  efforts.  The  conceptions  required  in 
that  course  were  concrete.  Inventive  and  reflective  efforts,  re- 
quired within  limits,  were  attentively  supervised  and  greatly 
assisted.  (2)  The  Intermediate  Course  continues  to  require 
the  efforts  of  the  Elementary  Course,  but  introduces  abstract 
activity,  and  lays  stress  on  reflective  and  inventive  efforts. 
Less  assistance  is  offered  to  the  pupil,  and  he  is  required  to 
depend  a  great  deal  upon  his  own  resources.  There  is  a  tran- 
sition from  advisory  to  corrective  and  critical  supervision. 
The  course  is  intended  for  pupils  between  twelve  and  eighteen 
years  of  age.  In  graded  schools,  the  Intermediate  Course 
should  be  completed  sooner. 

1.  Writing  the  substance  of  reading  lessons.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent plan  to  require  pupils  to  write  the  substance  of  their 
reading  lessons.  This  task  may  be  required  as  a  preparation 
for  intellectual  reading,  or  as  a  direct  exercise  in  composition 
at  stated  times,  say  once  or  twice  a  week.  There  are  several 
merits  in  the  exercise  here  advocated :  (1)  It  promotes  intel- 
lectuality in  reading ;  and  (2)  It  renders  the  transition  from 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract  in  composition  easier.  The  second 
result  follows  for  three  reasons :  {a)  The  reading  lesson  fur- 
nishes thoughts  for  composition ;  (6)  It  furnished  language ; 
and  (c)  It  furnishes  thread  or  plan  for  the  composition. 

2.  Writing  the  recitations  in  geography,  history,  observation 
lessons,  etc.  Sometimes,  if  the  class  be  small,  the  pupils  may 
be  required  to  write  instead  of  talk  their  recitations  in  geog- 
raphy, history,  etc.  If  the  class  be  large,  some  members  may 
write  their  recitations  while  others  recite  orally.     Apart  from, 


COMPOSITION  193 

and  in  addition  to,  its  direct  benefit  to  geography,  history,  etc., 
this  practice  is  an  excellent  exercise  in  composition.  It  re- 
quires reflective  as  well  as  perceptive  and  recollective  atten- 
tion ;  it  cultivates  conceptive  ability  in  composition ;  and  it 
tends  to  develop  the  habit  of  expressing  thoughts  in  classical 
language.  Remissness  in  spelling,  punctuation,  capitals,  apos- 
trophes, etc.,  ought  by  no  means  to  be  tolerated. 

3.  Synopsis  of  lesso7is  in  reading,  geography,  history,  etc. 
Anatomically  considered,  a  lesson  is  body  and  soul,  as  a  man 
is  body  and  soul.  The  body  in  both  cases  is  the  soul's  means 
of  revelation.  It  is  an  excellent  exercise  to  discover  the  skele- 
ton of  this  body  in  lessons  assigned  to  pupils.  It  is  through 
analysis  that  this  discovery  must  be  made.  As  soon  as  a  pupil 
becomes  able  to  analyze  his  lessons  in  reading,  history,  etc., 
into  their  skeletons,  he  is  prepared  to  plan  skeletons  of  his  own 
for  compositions  of  his  own.  He  will  then  also  understand 
and  appreciate  synopses.  Teachers  should  therefore  require 
pupils  to  analyze  their  lessons  until  the  ability  to  do  so  de- 
velops into  habit  and  inventive  tendency.  These  synopses 
should  be  written  on  paper,  slate,  or  board,  and  then  criticised 
and  improved. 

4.  Writing  all  sorts  of  letters.  When  the  pupil  has  arrived 
at  a  proper  age,  he  should  be  required  to  write  all  sorts  of  let- 
ters. The  species  of  letters  to  be  cultivated  in  the  common 
schools  are  as  follows :  (1)  Letters  of  Friendship,  (2)  Letters 
of  Business,  (3)  Official  Letters,  (4)  Didactic  Letters,  (5)  Let- 
ters of  Introduction,  (6)  News  Letters,  (7)  Notes  of  Invitation 
and  Acceptance,  (8)  Excuses,  (9)  Applications.  To  this  list 
might  be  added  Legal  Papers,  such  as  Promissory  Notes,  Due 
Bills,  Checks,  etc. 

Models  should  be  studied,  and  imitated  with  intelligence. 
The  parts  of  a  letter  should  be  understood  in  all  their  varieties 
and  proprieties.  It  is  to  be  deplored  that  so  many  boys  and 
girls  cannot  write  neat  and  sensible  letters  when  they  quit 

13 


194         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

school.  It  should  be  considered  discreditable  to  teachers  if 
they  fail  to  train  their  proteges  in  these  matters.  The  first 
necessity  in  performing  this  duty  is  to  study  some  standard 
author  on  letter  writing.  The  teacher  who  fails  to  do  this 
cannot  do  good  work.  Westlake's  little  book  on  "  How  to 
Write  Letters,"  or,  Hill's  "  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Compo- 
eition,"  is  recommended. 

5.  Converting  poetry  into  prose,  and  proverbs  into  essays. 
The  poets  give  us  great  thoughts  in  "  verse."  Philosophers 
condense  the  wisdom  of  the  world  into  concise  sentences  termed 
proverbs.  (1)  For  pupils  whose  ability  to  reflect  has  been 
sufiiciently  matured,  the  efibrt  to  convert  verse  into  prose  is  a 
most  effective  exercise  in  composition.  In  this  exercise  the 
poet's  thoughts  and  words  become  the  pupil's  thoughts  and 
words,  but  the  structure  of  prose  is  required  to  be  original. 
The  literary  taste  thus  developed  becomes  original  tendency 
and  habit  in  the  pupils.  (2)  The  effort  to  expand  a  proverb 
into  an  essay  is  a  very  excellent  exercise  in  abstract  and  re- 
flective composition.  It  requires  keen  analysis  to  pierce  to 
the  core  of  many  proverbs,  and  constructive  effort,  abstract 
and  reflective,  to  expand  them  into  essays.  Thus  it  follows 
that  the  practice  of  converting  poetry  into  prose,  and  proverbs 
into  essays,  develops  that  comprehensive  understanding  which 
is  so  much  to  be  coveted  in  mature  compositions.  Teachers 
should  therefore  collect  and  grade  appropriate  poems  and 
proverbs  for  the  purposes  indicated. 

6.  Elementary  lessons  in  diction,  sentence-qualities,  and  figures 
of  rhetoric.  A  regular  training  in  rhetoric  may  be  out  of  the 
question  for  many  common  schools ;  but  older  boys  and  girls 
should  certainly  know  the  desirable  qualities  of  vocabulary  and 
sentences,  and  the  common  figures  of  rhetoric.  The  following 
exercises  are  recommended  :  (1)  The  pupils  should  be  required 
to  observe  illustrative  sentences,  in  order  to  discover  how  the 
desirable  qualities  of  vocabulary  and  sentences  are  secured, 


COMPOSITION  195 

and  in  order  to  see  the  force  of  rhetorical  figures.  (2)  The 
pupils  should  be  required  to  commit  such  representative  sen- 
tences as  will  subsequently  serve  for  models.  (3)  The  pupils 
should  be  required  to  construct  sentences  in  imitation  of  those 
which  have  been  studied  as  models.  (4)  Original  sentences 
should  be  criticised  and  corrected.  Reference  to  dictionaries 
and  rhetorics  will  be  necessary.  The  teacher  should  under- 
stand his  business. 

7.  Original  Exercises.  A  time  should  come  when  pupils 
should  depend  almost  altogether  on  their  own  resources  in  com- 
position. (Eighth  Principle  of  Instruction.)  Adequate  super- 
vision must,  however,  prepare  for  this  emancipation  in  com- 
position. In  other  words,  pupils  in  original  composition  need 
a  teacher's  instructions  and  suggestions  in  the  following  tasks  : 

(1)  The  Selection  of  Subjects;  (2)  The  Cumulation  of  Mate- 
rials ;  (3)  The  Acquisition  of  Vocabulary ;  (4)  The  Acquisi- 
tion of  Style ;  (5)  The  Plan  of  Construction ;  (6)  The  Con- 
struction of  the  Composition ;  and  (7)  The  Finish.  The 
teacher's  duties  and  the  right  modes  of  procedure,  are  as 
follows : 

(1)  The  Selection  of  Subjects.  The  governing  considerations 
in  the  selection  of  subjects  have  already  been  noticed.  (See 
page  179.)  It  is  evident  that  only  mature  minds  can  select 
subjects  in  accordance  with  these  requirements.  Therefore  it 
devolves  on  the  teacher  to  select  subjects  for  young  pupils. 
If  young  pupils  are  allowed  to  select  subjects  for  composition, 
the  following  results  are  likely  :  (1)  Impropriety  of  choice; 

(2)  "Waste  of  time  by  embarrassment ;  and  (3)  Plagiarism. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  pupils  are  not  required  to  rely  on 

their  own  best  judgment  in  selecting  subjects,  their  individu- 
ality will  be  sacrificed.  This  result  must  be  avoided.  In 
order  to  avoid  this  sacrifice,  several  appropriate  subjects  should 
be  selected  by  the  teacher  and  proposed  to  the  class.  The 
teacher  should  ask  questions  and  converse  with  the  pupils  on 


196         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

these  subjects,  until  ibey  can  choose  for  themselves.  Two 
points  are  thus  gained :  (1)  The  pupil's  independence  is  not 
sacrificed,  but  his  individuality  is  cultivated.  (2)  Interest  in 
the  chosen  subject  is  stimulated,  and  the  pupil  will  perform 
his  task  with  energ}^  and  purpose. 

In  due  time,  of  course,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to 
select  his  own  subjects  in  accordance  with  the  governing 
considerations.  But  even  mature  pupils  may  be  required  to 
write  on  subjects  assigned  by  the  teacher,  especially  in  cases 
when  the  compositions  are  to  be  considered  as  evidence  of  pro- 
ficiency in  some  department  of  study.  Graduating  theses  are 
illustrations.  In  such  cases  the  students  should  be  required 
to  select  subjects,  hand  them  in  according  to  appointment, 
and  accept  the  approval  of  the  teacher.  The  propriety  of  this 
course  is  obvious  :  (1)  Desirable  variety  of  subjects  is  secured; 
(2)  The  liability  of  plagiarism  is  lessened ;  and  (3)  The  indi- 
viduality of  the  pupil  is  guarded  against  possible  caprice. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  state  the  subject  of  a  composition 
in  the  most  fitting  words.  Conciseness  and  precision  should 
be  cultivated.  Though  attractiveness  of  statement  is  effective, 
it  should  never  be  attempted  at  the  sacrifice  of  true  dignity 
and  simplicity. 

The  ability  to  adjust  subjects  to  the  present  powers  of  the 
pupil,  is  to  be  greatly  coveted  by  the  teacher.  On  his  success 
in  this  task,  will  depend  the  degree  of  interest  in  composition 
and  his  consequent  success  as  a  teacher  of  composition.  The 
teacher  that  fails  in  the  task  of  supervising  the  selection  of 
subjects,  will  make  his  pupils  hate  composition.  This  hatred 
is  generally  fatal. 

(2)  Cumulation  of  Materials.  The  governing  considera- 
tions in  the  cumulation  of  ideas,  thoughts,  sentiments,  etc., 
have  already  been  noticed.  (See  page  179).  It  devolves  on 
the  teacher  to  cultivate  obedience  to  these  requirements  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils.     The  possible  modes  of  cumulating  mate- 


COMPOSITION  197 

rials  for  composition  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Observation,  (2)  Con- 
versation, (3)  Reading,  (4)  Imagination,  and  (5)  Reflection. 

Within  the  domain  of  the  pupil's  past  and  possible  ex- 
perience, the  teacher  must  insist  on  Observation  as  the  first 
source  of  ideas.  The  experiences  of  others  may  be  ascertained 
by  Conversation;  or,  if  that  be  impracticable,  by  Reading, 
The  habit  of  Imagining  personages,  places,  events,  experi- 
ences, possibilities,  etc.,  should  be  cultivated  in  pupils.  It 
was  this  habit  of  giving  "  to  airy  nothings  a  local  habita- 
tion and  a  name,"  that  made  Shakespeare  and  Dickens  such 
charming  writers.  Pupils  should,  however,  be  taught  to  Re- 
flect as  well  as  to  observe,  converse,  read,  and  imagine.  The 
habit  of  forming  opinions  should  be  encouraged.  The  ability 
to  discover  causes,  laws,  and  effects,  should  be  developed  in 
older  pupils.  Taste  for  science  and  philosophy  should  be 
stimulated  in  capable  students  as  soon  as  they  become  mature 
enough.  Comprehensive  scholarship,  maturity  of  thought, 
and  refinement  in  taste,  are  proper  ideals  in  adult  composers. 

(3)  The  Acquisition  of  Vocabulary.  The  first  necessity  in 
composition  is  "  something  to  say"  ;  but  it  is  through  lan- 
guage that  this  something  must  be  said.  Therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  acquire  a  vocabulary  and  the  ability  to  construct 
suitable  sentences.  There  are  various  ways  of  increasing  and 
improving  one's  vocabulary.  Among  others  are  the  follow- 
ing :  (1)  Association,  (2)  Lists  of  Words,  (3)  Use  of  the 
Dictionary,  (4)  Reading,  (5)  Translating,  and  (6)  Choice  of 
Words. 

The  words  used  by  associates  tend  to  cling  to  memory,  as 
burrs  cling  to  a  dress.  This  is  especially  true  of  children, 
who  often  surprise  us  by  their  use  of  words  "just  picked  up 
anywhere."  Indeed,  it  is  possible  for  a  child  to  learn  to  con- 
verse in  several  languages  before  it  comes  to  school  at  all,  pro- 
vided it  has  the  opportunity  to  hear  these  languages  and  use 
them.     The  child  whose  teacher  and  other  associates  use  a 


198         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

large  and  choice  vocabulary  will  acquire  this  vocabulary  as  if 
by  instinct.  It  is  a  serious  misfortune  to  associate  with  peo- 
ple who  are  careless  in  speaking,  or  to  attend  a  school  whose 
teacher  cannot  talk. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  and  keep  a  list  of  the  new  words 
met  in  lessons,  general  reading,  conversation,  speeches,  etc. 
This  habit  should  be  formed  in  early  youth,  and  kept  up 
through  life.  The  words  thus  catalogued  and  looked  up  in 
the  dictionary,  should  be  used  in  speaking  and  composing. 
Frequent  review  will  keep  these  words  at  the  end  of  our 
fingers  and  tongue.  In  this  way  our  vocabulary,  which  is 
much  smaller  than  most  people  suspect,  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased and  permanently  improved. 

It  is  to  be  deplored  that  so  many  pupils  neglect  to  look  for 
the  meanings  and  uses,  as  well  as  the  pronunciation,  of  the 
words  which  they  meet  in  their  books  and  elsewhere,  and  it  is 
even  more  deplorable  that  so  many  teachers  do  not  insist  on 
this  habit  both  in  themselves  and  in  their  pupils.  If  it  be 
within  his  means,  every  student  should  own  some  standard 
dictionary,  and  make  it  his  constant  companion  in  study. 
"  This  was  the  habit  of  some  of  the  most  accomplished  schol- 
ars and  writers.  Charles  Sumner  was  a  most  assiduous  stu- 
dent of  the  dictionary.  He  had  several  copies  in  his  library  in 
constant  use,  and  usually  carried  a  pocket  edition  with  him ; 
and  they  were  found,  after  his  death,  to  be  the  most  thumbed 
of  any  of  his  books.  Lord  Chatham  went  twice  through  the 
largest  English  dictionary,  studying  the  meaning  of  each  word 
and  its  various  uses." 

In  order  to  acquire  a  precise  and  copious  vocabulary,  the 
student  must  read  the  masters  in  English  literature,  such  as 
Addison,  Washington  Irving,  Tennyson,  etc.  These  masters 
put  meanings  into  words  and  phrases,  whose  delicate  shades 
the  ordinary  mind  would  never  even  suspect.  The  disciple 
of  such  masters  cannot  but  improve  at  their  feet. 


COMPOSITION  199 

Apart  from  tlie  fact  that  translating  foreign  languages,  espe- 
cially the  classic  Greek  and  Latin,  tends  to  make  students 
idealists,  it  increases  and  improves  their  English  vocabulary. 
The  translator  must  consult  a  lexicon  in  order  to  find  the 
corresponding  English  words  into  which  a  foreign  word  may 
be  translated,  and  then,  from  a  number  of  alternatives,  he 
must  select  that  English  word  which  will  best  express  the 
meaning  of  the  foreign  word.  It  is  in  this  way  that  his  Eng- 
lish vocabulary  increases  and  improves,  even  if  he  should  in  a 
short  time  forget  all  the  foreign  words. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  prefer  short  words  to  long 
words.  It  is  not  a  literary  sin  to  use  long  words  when  short 
words  cannot  be  found  or  when  these  do  not  express  the  in- 
tended meanings  ;  but  the  impression  that  long  words  indi- 
cate profundity  of  mind,  is  a  delusion  which  the  teacher 
should  dispel  as  soon  as  possible.  There  should  be  a  severe 
simplicity  in  our  choice  of  words.  The  Anglo-Saxon  vocab- 
ulary, of  which  the  English  Bible,  as  well  as  "  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress" and  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  are  good  examples,  is  far  more 
expressive,  and  far  less  cumbersome,  than  the  corresponding 
words  derived  from  foreign  languages. 

(4)  The  Acquisition  of  Style.  A  large  and  expressive  vocab- 
ulary is  a  most  desirable  acquisition,  but  it  must»be  supple- 
mented by  the  ability  to  construct  sentences  according  to  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  There  are  various  ways  of 
acquiring  an  effective  English  style.  The  following  practices 
are  recommended  :  (1)  General  reading,  (2)  Copying  the  sen- 
tences of  the  Masters,  (3)  Committing  choice  extracts  of  prose 
and  poetry  ;  and  (4)  Declaiming  choice  selections. 

Pupils  who  read  a  great  deal  are  usually  better  composers 
than  other  pupils,  however  bright  the  latter  may  be.  The 
practice  of  copying  sentences  makes  their  structure  familiar 
and  in  time  impresses  the  style  on  the  one  who  copies  them. 
The  practice  of  committing  is  still  more  impressive,  inasmuch 


200         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

as  the  amount  of  effort  is  greater  in  committing  than  in  copy- 
ing. The  old  practice  of  declaiming  on  Friday  afternoons  is 
a  good  practice.  The  prospect  of  an  audience,  and  the  desire 
to  deserve  praise,  stimulate  an  intensity  in  committing  selec- 
tions, that  will  impress  them  deeply. 

(5)  The  Plan  of  Construction.  The  governing  considera- 
tions in  planning  a  composition  have  already  been  noticed. 
(See  page  180.)  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  lead  the  way  in 
■this  task  of  his  pupils,  as  well  as  in  other  tasks.  The  impor- 
tance of  outlines  should  be  pointed  out,  and  the  habit  of 
making  them  should  be  developed  in  pupils  in  due  time.  The 
formation  of  outlines  is  a  very  awkward  business  at  first ;  but,  if 
wisely  superintended,  it  soon  becomes  a  pleasure.  The  teacher 
can  do  the  following  things  :  (1)  He  can  teach  the  pupils  how 
to  ask  themselves  questions  on  some  subject,  such  as  Frogs,  or 
Stars.  (2)  He  can  teach  the  pupils  how  to  convert  these  ques- 
tions into  an  outline.  (3)  He  can  write  out  a  composition 
according  to  outline,  while  the  pupils  observe  him.  In  this 
way  they  will  see  what  use  to  make  of  an  outline.  (4)  He 
can  revise  outlines  formed  by  the  pupils,  showing  them  where 
they  went  wrong,  and  how  to  avoid  the  mistake  in  the  future. 

There  should  be  a  great  deal  of  practice  in  the  formation 
of  outlines.  An  outline  lesson  may  sometimes  take  the  place 
of  a  composition,  the  pupils  being  required  to  construct  the 
outlines  on  the  board,  slates,  or  paper,  and  corrections  follow- 
ing according  to  the  teacher's  judgment. 

(6)  Wnting  the  Composition.  The  form- features  in  the 
structure  of  a  composition  were  described  on  page  177.  It 
devolves  on  the  teacher  to  insist  on  these  matters.  The  pupils 
should  be  led  to  see  just  what  is  w^anted,  and  also  the  impor- 
tance of  strictness  in  these  form-features  of  a  composition. 
Carelessness  in  the  mechanical  execution  of  a  composition  is 
not  only  an  offense  to  good  taste ;  it  also  renders  the  completed 
structure  an  imperfect  vehicle  of  thought. 


COMPOSITION  201 

The  teacher  should  try  to  develop  in  his  pupils  the  habit  of 
writing  at  times  and  under  circumstances  that  are  most  appro- 
priate to  the  task  of  writing.  The  habit  of  "  brooding  over" 
a  subject  until  thoughts  come  and  flow,  should  be  encouraged. 
The  writer  should  be  taught  how,  by  means  of  questions  put 
to  himself,  he  may  work  himself  into  the  mood  to  write,  and 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  take  true  pride  in  the  power  to  say 
things  worth  saying.  Pupils  should  be  led  to  see  how  impor- 
tant it  is  to  write  a  composition  over  again  and  again  until  it 
becomes  as  concise  and  precise  as  it  should  be,  and  until  the 
various  requirements  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic,  have 
been  met.  Young  writers  are  loth  to  destroy  their  first  prod- 
ucts, fondly  believing  that  it  will  break  their  heart  to  give  up 
anything  they  have  said.     This  delusion  must  be  corrected. 

(7)  Collection.  The  necessity  of  corrective  supervision  over 
pupils  in  composition,  was  noticed  on  page  179.  The  imper- 
fections in  the  compositions  of  beginners  should  be  corrected 
by  the  teacher  himself.  The  corrections  should  be  explained  to 
pupils,  care  being  taken  not  to  discourage  the  writers.  The 
compositions  should  then  be  read  by  the  pupils,  and  copied  in 
a  suitable  book  for  future  reference. 

In  the  case  of  older  pupils  the  teacher  should  adopt  a  sys- 
tem of  abbreviations  by  which  to  indicate  necessary  corrections. 
The  pupils  should  understand  these  abbreviations,  or  symbols, 
thoroughly,  and  make  the  corrections  accordingly.  The  cor- 
rected compositions  should  be  read  by  the  writer,  at  such  time 
as  the  teacher  may  appoint,  after  which  they  should  be  copied 
in  a  suitable  book  for  future  reference.  The  preservation  of 
compositions  will  develop  the  habit  of  comparing  former  and 
later  products,  thus  serving  as  a  stimulus  to  better  efforts.  The 
day  on  which  the  compositions  are  read  should  be  a  frequent 
and  welcome  day  in  every  school.  The  inventive  teacher  will 
throw  great  interest  into  the  exercises  of  "  Composition  Day," 
converting  dull  routine  into  a  literary  feast.     The  exercises  of 


202         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

"  Composition  Day"  may  include  all  the  exercises  of  a  good 
literary  society,  the  pupils  being  members  and  officers. 

III.  HIGHER  COURSE. 

In  this  course  the  student  is  required  to  aim  at  perfection  in 
his  art.  He  must  try  to  find  subjects  that  have  something 
characteristic  in  them,  and  develop  them  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  of  thought  and  language.  He  must  try  to  appro- 
priate the  inspirations  of  the  Masters  in  literature,  but  develop 
his  own  individuality  to  the  utmost.  Every  composition  must 
be  subjected  to  scientific  criticism.  (Hill's  "Elements  of 
Ehetoric  and  Composition,"  pages  135  to  160.)  It  is  the 
function  of  such  a  course  to  develop  authors,  journalists, 
teachers  of  literature,  ministers,  lecturers,  etc. 

The  requisites  of  higher  composition  are  as  follows:  (1) 
Criticism  of  the  Masterpieces  of  English  literature ;  (2)  In- 
quiry into  the  relations  of  thought  and  language ;  (3)  The  ap- 
plication of  principles  of  the  relations  of  thought  and  language ; 
and  (4)  Criticism  of  original  compositions. 

IV.   IMPORTANCE  OF  COMPOSITION. 

The  art  of  composition  deserves  the  most  earnest  cultiva- 
tion. The  results  of  practice  in  composition  are  as  follows : 
(1)  The  Functional  Improvement  of  the  Mind ;  (2)  Increase 
of  Knowledge ;  and  (3)  Practical  Equipment. 

Functional  Improvement  of  the  Mind.  The  selection 
of  subjects,  the  accumulation  of  materials,  the  invention  of  plan 
of  construction,  the  completion  of  the  structure,  the  critical  re- 
vision, the  correction,  etc.,  require  all  the  possible  species  of 
mental  activity.  (See  "  Mental  Activity.")  All  the  ends  of 
mental  development  may  be  attained  in  composition ;  namely, 
(1)  Greater  functional  activity;  (2)  Greater  functional  power; 
(3)  Right  habits ;  and  (4)  Correct  tastes. 


COMPOSITION  203 

Increase  of  Knowledge.  In  composition  there  must  be 
"  something  to  say"  and  language  with  which  to  say  it.  The 
acquisition  of  ideas,  thoughts,  vocabulary,  style,  etc.,  is  there- 
fore a  necessity.  Thus  practice  in  composition  necessitates  in- 
crease in  knowledge.  The  knowledge  acquired  is  derived  from 
all  the  domains  of  thought,  according  to  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher,  or  the  preference  of  the  pupil. 

Practical  Equipment.  Skill  in  composition  is  a  valuable 
equipment  in  the  affairs  of  life.  The  ability  to  write  a  letter 
is  a  commercial  advantage  and  a  social  accomplishment.  In- 
deed, the  master  in  composition  is  able  to  live  by  his  art,  and 
is  a  prince  among  men.  Journalism,  authorship,  etc.,  are 
among  the  most  powerful  agencies  in  modern  civilization. 


204         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER    VII. 

GRAMMAR. 

The  true  object  of  instruction  is  to  cause  right  mental 
processes  in  pupils,  (See  the  Principles  of  Instruction.)  It 
is  obvious  that,  in  order  to  cause  the  right  mental  processes  in 
teaching  any  branch  of  study,  the  teacher  must  know  those 
processes.  Therefore,  the  pedagogics  of  grammar  is  concerned 
with  two  general  topics  :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Grammar ;  and 
(2)  Instruction  in  Grammar. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  GRAMMAR. 
The  nature  of  grammar  is  most  conveniently  studied  under 
three  heads  :  (1)  The  Subject  of  Grammar ;  (2)  The  Psychology 
of  Grammar ;  and  (3)  The  History  of  Grammar. 

I.  THE   "SUBJECT"   OF   GRAMMAR. 

In  the  sense  in  which  physiology  is  the  study  of  the  body, 
grammar  is  the  study  of  "  words  in  sentences." 

Words  in  Sentences.  It  is  not  with  isolated  words,  but 
with  words  as  parts  of  sentences  that  grammar  is  concerned. 
Differences  of  function  and  relation  require  variations  in  the 
spelling  and  placing  of  words.  Therefore,  inquiry  into  these 
differences  of  function  and  relation,  is  the  essential  to  insight 
into  the  formation  of  sentences,  which  insight  is  the  ultimate 
object  of  grammar.  Thus  we  see  that,  although  grammar 
must  encroach  upon  the  domain  of  orthography,  and  rise  into 
the  sphere  of  prosody,  its  special  territory  is  a  limited  domain 
in  etymology,  enriched  by  syntax. 

Orthography.  Grammar  consists  of  only  so  much  orthog- 
raphy as  is  required  in  the  interest  of  forming  sentences. 
When,  for  example,  the  time  to  which  the  thought  of  a  sen- 


GEAMMAE  205 

tence  is  referred,  is  past,  the  distinction  is  denoted  by  a  varia- 
tion in  the  spelling  of  the  predicate. 

Etymology.  In  its  widest  sense  etymology  is  concerned  not 
only  with  the  functions  of  words,  but  also  with  their  history. 
But  grammar  is  etymology  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  concerned 
with  the  functions,  properties,  and  relations  of  words  in  sen- 
tences. 

Syntax.  The  etymology  of  which  grammar  consists  is  en- 
riched by  the  fact  that  v/ords  are  parts  of  sentences.  This 
distinction,  indeed,  is  the  justification  of  grammar  as  a  sj^ecial 
study.  Take,  for  example,  the  sentence,  "  Tlie  handsome  man 
that  rode  in  the  king's  chariot,  M^as  slain  by  a  woman."  Jn 
this  sentence  the  function,  several  properties,  and  a  distinctive 
relation  of  the  word  "  that,"  are  determined  by  the  sentence 
of  which  it  is  a  logical  element.  This  enriching  inquiry  into 
the  formation  of  sentences  is  termed  Syntax. 

Rhetoric.  Rhetoric  is  concerned  with  such  problems  as 
punctuation,  capitalization,  diction,  sentence-qualities,  figures 
of  rhetoric,  poetry,  etc.  Inasmuch  as  punctuation,  capitaliza- 
tion, choice  of  words,  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, are  practically  indispensable  in  the  formation  of  sentences, 
these  topics  should  never  be  divorced  from  their  connections. 
To  this  extent  grammar  employs  rhetoric.  In  due  time, 
"composition,"  i.e.,  the  combination  of  sentences,  brings  all 
the  higher  concerns  of  rhetoric  and  logic  into  grammar. 

II.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  GEAMMAE. 

The  ideal  method  of  studying  "  words  in  sentences,"  as  well 
as  plants  or  animals,  or  any  other  subject,  consists  of  observa- 
tion, induction,  and  deduction.  (See  the  Tenth  Principle  of 
Instruction.) 

Observation  in  Grammar.  The  first  step  in  the  formal 
study  of  "  words  in  sentences"  is  observation,  i.e.,  the  ascer- 
tainment of  facts.     The  observer  in  grammar  must  examine 


206         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sentences  just  as  observers  in  botany  examine  flowers,  i.e.,  he 
must  look  for  parts,  properties,  relations,  etc.  In  language 
as  in  other  spheres  instances  are  generally  individuals  of  a 
genus,  and  therefore  sugges.tive  of  laws.  But  there  are  many 
irregularities  in  language.  Therefore  the  observer  should  ex- 
amine many  instances  before  he  ventures  to  generalize,  lest  the 
generalizations  have  insufficient  grounds.  If,  for  example,  the 
student  of  grammar  wishes  to  study  pronouns,  he  must  make 
as  large  a  collection  of  pronouns  as  possible,  and  observe  them 
as  used  in  sentences. 

Induction  in  Grammar.  The  second  step  in  the  formal 
study  of  "  words  in  sentences,"  is  induction,  i.e.,  the  ascertain- 
ment of  laws.  Inasmucli  as  instances  in  language  are  gener- 
ally individuals  of  a  genus,  induction  begins  with  the  justifi- 
able hypothesis  that  what  was  found  true  in  particular  may 
also  be  true  in  general.  The  distinctive  object  of  induction  in 
the  larger  sense,  is  to  verify  such  hypotheses.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this  purpose,  the  observer  must  gather  sentences 
from  all  sources  and  offer  them  as  evidence.  Should  irregu- 
larities be  discovered  in  the  sentences  offered,  the  hypothesis 
must  be  either  corrected  or  abandoned ;  but  if  all  the  offered 
sentences  confirm  the  hypothesis,  it  is  accepted  as  law.  If,  for 
example,  the  student  of  etymological  grammar  wishes  to  ascer- 
tain into  how  many  parts  of  speech  the  English  language  must 
be  classified,  or  what  case  prepositions  govern,  he  gathers  evi- 
dences from  various  sources,  proving,  as  he  can  in  these  cases, 
that  there  are  no  exceptions  to  his  hypotheses.  Proceeding 
in  the  same  way  in  syntax,  he  finds  that  the  rule  of  agreement 
of  subject  and  predicate  has  several  exceptions,  which  he  there- 
fore records,  and  thus  corrects  his  hypothesis.  This  method 
of  discovery,  since  it  is  both  historical  and  rational,  is  the  ideal 
method  of  ascertaining  all  the  general  truths  of  grammar, 
whether  it  be  in  orthography,  etymology,  syntax,  or  prosody. 
It  should  be  made  the  habit  of  all  students. 


GRAMMAR  207 

Deduction  in  Grammar.  The  final  step  in  the  formal 
study  of  "  words  in  sentences/'  is  deduction,  i.e.,  the  classifi- 
cation of  individual  words  and  parts  of  sentences,  and  their  use 
according  to  discovered  laws.  There  are  three  distinct  de- 
ductive processes  in  grammar  :  (1)  Parsing ;  (2)  Analysis,  and 
(3)  Construction  of  Sentences. 

Parsing.  The  comparison  of  a  sentence-word  with  the 
concepts  of  its  objective  function  and  relations,  i.e.,  with  the 
concepts  of  etymology,  is  termed  Parsing.  The  language  by 
means  of  which  these  deductive  explanations  are  made,  re- 
quires many  technical  terms,  such  as  noun,  gender,  tense, 
voice,  etc. 

Analysis.  The  comparison  of  sentence-parts  with  the  con- 
cepts of  their  logical  functions  and  relations,  i.e.,  with  the 
concepts  of  syntax,  is  termed  Analysis.  The  language  of 
these  deductive  explanations  of  a  sentence,  as  well  as  the  lan- 
guage of  parsing,  requires  technical  terms,  such  as  subject, 
predicate,  adjuncts,  etc. 

Construction  of  Sentences.  (1)  Faulty  sentences  may  be 
corrected,  i.e.,  made  to  conform  with  violated  laws.  Such 
deductive  reformation  of  sentences  is  commonly  known  as 
the  correction  of  false  syntax.  (2)  Original  sentences  may 
be  constructed  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  grammar. 
Such  deductive  formation  of  sentences,  the  supreme  end  in 
view  in  the  study  of  grammar,  is  commonly  known  as  true 
syntax. 

The  Definition  of  Grammar.  The  method  of  study  just 
described,  together  with  a  systematic  statement  of  truths,  con- 
stitutes science.  Grammar  is  therefore  a  science ;  and,  since 
its  subject  is  "  words  in  sentences,"  it  is  correctly  defined  as 
the  science  of  "  words  in  sentences,"  or,  simply,  the  science  of 
sentences.  But,  as  a  systematic  guide  to  usage,  grammar  is 
also  an  art,  and  may  be  so  defined.  Accordingly,  grammar  is 
the  science  and  art  of  sentences. 


208         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

III.  THE  HISTORY  OF  GRAMMAR. 

The  history  of  grammar  is  conveniently  studied  under  the 
following  heads  :  (1)  The  Development  of  Grammar  ;  (2)  Text- 
Books  of  Grammar ;  and  (3)  The  Popularity  of  Grammar. 

The  Development  of  Grammar.  A  complete  history  of 
developments  in  grammar,  though  essential  in  a  course  of  gen- 
eral grammar,  would  require  too  much  space  for  our  present 
purpose,  and  could  hardly  be  justified  by  the  demand.  A 
brief  account,  however,  seems  necessary  at  this  time. 

The  Hindoos  and  Greeks  were  the  pioneers  in  grammar. 
(1)  "Among  the  Hindoos  the  science  of  grammar  arose  in  im- 
mediate connection  with  the  study  and  interpretation  of  their 
sacred  books,  and  served  the  main  purpose  of  explaining  and 
of  maintaining  in  purity  of  form  the  ancient  or  classical  lan- 
guage, the  Sanskrit,  which  had  ceased  to  be  the  language  of 
the  people  and  was  regarded  as  the  peculiar  property  of  the 
priestly  class."  (2)  Among  the  Greeks  the  beginnings  of 
grammar  are  found  in  the  works  of  the  philosophers.  The 
parts  of  speech  were  partly  identified  and  defined  by  Aristotle, 
and  additions  were  made  by  the  Stoics.  It  was  not  until  the 
second  century  before  Christ  that  Alexandrian  scholars  devel- 
oped a  complete  system  of  Greek  grammar.  In  preparing 
correct  texts  of  the  Greek  classics,  especially  of  Homer,  these 
scholars  found  that  the  manuscripts  differed,  and  then  deter- 
mined the  correct  form  by  comparison  v/ith  the  language  of 
Homer.  (3)  Modern  developments  in  grammar  consist  chiefly 
of  expansions,  superstructures,  rational  correlation  of  depart- 
ments, practical  applications,  and  improvements  in  presenta- 
tion. The  long  domination  of  humanism  in  education  has 
made  grammar  almost  as  exact  a  science  as  mathematics. 

The  Text-Books  of  Grammar.  Great  changes  of  content 
and  method  have  been  introduced  into  the  text-books  of  gram- 
mar since  the  time  of  Zenodotus  and  Aristarchus,  the  great 


GRAMMAR  209 

grammarians  of  Alexandria.  The  little  handbook  of  Diony- 
sius  Thrax^  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus,  was  "  the  basis  for  all  the 
Greek  grammars  down  almost  to  modern  times/'  and,  through 
its  virtual  use  by  Chrysoloras  and  the  Renaissance  scholars,  it 
determined  the  traditions  of  school  grammars  for  all  Euro- 
pean languages ;  but  the  old  Dionysius  became  more  and  more 
portly  and  precise.  The  Romans  left  the  science  of  gram- 
mar largely  to  Greek  scholars.  Terence,  a  contemporary  of 
Cicero,  is  famous  for  his  reports  concerning  the  materials  of 
the  older  Latin  and  the  Italic  dialects.  An  introduction  to 
Lilly's  Latin  Grammar,  by  John  Colet,  published  in  1510, 
and  the  exclusive  standard  in  England  for  more  than  three 
centuries,  was  the  first  attempt  at  English  grammar.  In 
1586,  William  Bullokar  wrote  an  exclusively  English  gram- 
mar. "In  1758,  Bishop  Lowth  published  his  celebrated 
grammar,  an  excellent  work  from  which  Lindley  Murray 
drew  most  of  his  materials.  Lindley  Murray  published  his 
first  grammar  in  1795,  and  his  Abridgement  in  1797,  a  work 
which  has  been  extensively  used  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. This  popular  work  was  largely  derived  from  Lowth 
and  Priestly,  and  owed  its  popularity  to  its  practical  adapta- 
tion to  the  work  of  the  school- room."  Goold  Brown's  s:ram- 
mar  is  probably  the  ablest  and  most  celebrated  American  work. 
Among  the  many  excellent  grammars  of  our  own  times  are 
those  of  Dr.  Lyte,  Dr.  Welsh,  and  others. 

The  Popularity  of  Grammar.  From  the  time  of  its  first 
introduction,  grammar  has  occupied  an  important  place  in 
schools.  The  Renaissance  made  grammar  a  necessity,  and 
the  long  domination  of  humanism  in  education  (see  Painter's 
"  History  of  Education")  kept  "  the  first  of  the  seven  liberal 
arts,"  first  in  honor  down  to  modern  times.  America  is  not 
far  behind  in  its  respectful  attitude  toward  formal  grammar. 
It  has  long  been  looked  upon  as  the  disciplinary  study  par  exceJ- 
lence,  not  only  in  elementary,  but  also  in  secondary  education. 

14 


210         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

For  fuller  presentations  of  the  history  of  grammar,  methods- 
students  are  respectfully  referred  to  Johnson's  "  Universal 
Cyclopsedia,"  "The  Cyclopsedia  Britannica,"  "The  Century 
Dictionary/'  etc. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  GRAMMAR. 

The  nature  of  grammar  makes  inquiry  into  the  following 
subjects  a  necessity  for  teachers  of  grammar :  (1)  The  Courses 
of  Instruction  in  Grammar ;  (2)  The  Special  Objects  of  the 
Courses;  (3)  The  Subjects  of  Study;  (4)  The  Methods  of 
Instruction ;  and  (5)  The  Importance  of  Grammar. 

I.  THE  COURSES  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  GRAMMAR. 

The  number  of  necessary  adaptations  of  the  subject  and 
method  of  grammar  to  the  powers  and  needs  of  pupils^  deter- 
mines, as  it  does  in  other  branches,  the  number  and  character 
of  the  courses  of  instruction.  (See  the  Principles  of  Instruc- 
tion.) The  following  topics,  therefore,  deserve  special  atten- 
tion :  (1)  The  Nature  of  the  Subject;  (2)  The  Pupil  in  Gram- 
mar ;  and  (3)  The  Number  of  Courses  in  Grammar. 

The  Nature  of  the  Subject.  In  grammar,  consisting  as 
it  does  practically  of  etymology  and  syntax,  there  are  two 
species  of  necessary  judgments.  (1)  The  judgments  of  ety- 
mology are  objective,  i.e.,  they  have  to  do  with  the  various  ob- 
jects of  thought  as  classified  in  the  parts  of  speech.  (2)  The 
judgments  of  syntax  are  subjective,  i.e.,  they  have  to  do  with 
thoughts  themselves.  There  is,  however,  an  important  dis- 
tinction between  direct  comparison  and  syllogism.  (See  the 
chapter  on  Mental  Activity.) 

The  Pupil  in  Grammar.  Objective  judgments  are  possi- 
ble before  subjective  judgments.  (See  Principles  of  Knowl- 
edge.) Tbey  are  necessary  stepping-stones  in  abstraction. 
Subjective  judgments  presuppose  considerable  maturity  in  re- 


GRAMMAR  211 

flection.  The  syntax  of  simple  sentences,  as  the  history  of 
grammar  shows,  follows  etymology  as  a  natural  sequence,  and 
is  only  slightly  more  difficult.  The  syntax  of  complex  and 
compound  sentences  consists  of  anatomic  analysis  and  synthe- 
sis of  syllogisms,  and  thus  requires  a  maturity  in  logical 
thought  to  which  few  pupils  attain  before  the  high  school 
epoch.  The  anomalies  and  subtleties  of  which  the  structure 
of  English  sentences  often  consists,  require  a  keenness  of  analy- 
sis and  a  maturity  in  language  to  which  few  can  attain  before 
the  college  epoch. 

The  Number  of  Courses  in  Grammar.  In  view  of  the 
psychology  of  grammar  and  the  powers  of  pupils,  it  seems  ap- 
propriate to  arrange  three  courses  of  instruction  in  grammar  : 
(1)  The  elementary  course  for  etymology  and  the  simple  sen- 
tence ;  (2)  The  intermediate  course  for  complete  etymology, 
and  the  complex  and  compound  sentences ;  and  (3)  The  higher 
course  for  anomalies  and  subtleties  in  English  classics. 

II.  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 

The  distinctive  features  of  any  course  of  instruction  come 
to  view  as  ends  to  be  accomplished,  ground  to  be  covered,  or 
methods  of  work.  (See  Principles  of  Instruction.)  The  fol- 
lowing topics,  therefore,  deserve  attention  at  this  point:  (1) 
The  Objects  of  Elementary  Grammar ;  (2)  Its  Subjects  ;  and 
(3)  The  Methods  of  Instruction. 

The  Objects  of  Elementary  Grammar.  The  subjective 
judgments  so  important  as  reinforcements  of  etymology  in 
elementary  grammar  (see  Courses  in  Grammar),  require  a 
maturity  of  mind  seldom  found  in  pupils  prior  to  their  seventh 
year  in  school.  In  the  two  years  of  the  grammar  school  epoch 
which  thus  remain,  many  elementary  inductions  and  corre- 
sponding deductions  in  grammar  can  be  successfully  accom- 
plished. 

The  Inductions  of  Elementary  Gh-ammar.     (1 )  The  technical 


212         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

names  of  the  concepts  of  grammar,  as  noun,  tense,  modifierj 
should,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  be  taught  from  the  beginning. 
(2)  The  pupil  of  elementary  grammar  should  seldom,  if  ever 
(see  the  Sixth,  Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Tenth  Principles  of  In- 
struction), be  allowed  to  use  definitions  which  were  not  devel- 
oped in  his  own  mind.  The  ability  to  describe  a  concept  in 
original  language,  is  the  best  proof  that  the  pupil  knows  the 
thing  in  question.  The  danger  of  putting  a  text-book  in  the 
hands  of  pupils  in  elementary  grammar,  is,  therefore,  very 
great.  (3)  The  concepts  of  relation  (agreement,  government, 
etc.)  should  be  expanded  into  laws,  and  expressed  in  the  form 
of  rules.  This  process,  like  that  of  definition  in  grammar, 
presupposes  considerable  mental  maturity,  and  requires  great 
skill  in  .teachers.  The  rules,  like  the  definitions  of  element- 
ary grammar,  should  at  first  be  expressed  in  the  pupil's  own 
language. 

The  Deductions  of  Elementary  Grammar.  In  order  to 
make  the  concepts  of  elementary  grammar  permanent  posses- 
sions of  the  pupil's  mind,  to  enlarge  them,  and  to  cultivate 
the  habit  of  deductive  or  practical  judgment  in  language, 
words  in  sentences  should  be  parsed,  the  sentences  analyzed, 
incomplete  sentences  completed,  defective  sentences  corrected, 
and  original  sentences  constructed.  (See  the  First,  Second, 
Fourth,  and  Eighth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  This  neces- 
sary work  should,  of  course,  be  as  informal  as  possible,  and 
yet  as  systematic  as  possible. 

The  Subjects  of  Elementary  Grammar.  Regard  for 
logical  sequence  requires  that  a  definite  order  be  observed  in 
passing  from  subject  to  subject  in  grammar,  as  in  any  other 
branch  of  study.  (See  the  chapter  on  The  Nature  of  Knowl- 
edge.) 

The  Order  of  Subjects  in  Elementary  Grammar.  (1)  The 
most  objective,  and  therefore  the  most  elementary  task  in 
grammar,  is  to  classify  words  into  parts  of  speech.     This  task 


GRAMMAE  218 

does  not  presuppose  analytic  knowledge  of  sentences.  (2) 
After  the  noun,  verb,  adjective,  and  adverb  have  been  taught 
as  parts  of  speech,  they  should  be  presented  as  subject,  predi- 
cate, and  modifiers  in  sentences.  (3)  All  the  parts  of  speech 
should  then  be  taught  in  their  first  form  in  sentences.  (4) 
The  properties  and  modifications  of  the  parts  of  speech  should 
then  be  introduced  as  variations  in  sentence  relations.  (5) 
The  classes  of  the  parts  of  speech,  with  the  exception  perhaps 
of  common  and  proper  nouns,  and  personal  pronouns,  can  be 
understood  only  when  the  properties  of  the  parts  of  speech 
and  the  anatomy  of  sentences  have  been  taught.  Some  classes, 
as  the  relative  prououn,  cannot  be  fully  taught  until  the  com- 
plex sentence  has  been  introduced.  (6)  Complex  and  com- 
pound sentences  whose  thought  relations  are  obvious,  should, 
as  a  reinforcement  of  etymology,  be  introduced  in  the  second 
year  of  grammar.  (7)  The  development  of  a  new  concept  or 
rule  should  always  be  followed  by  such  informal  parsing  and 
analyzing  as  may  be  possible.  The  sentences  used  in  these 
exercises  may  be  invented  by  the  teacher  or  selected  from  the 
pupil's  reading  book.  (8)  Practice  in  reforming,  completing, 
and  constructing  sentences,  should  be  connected  with  the  de- 
velopment of  rules.  The  exercise  of  completing  sentences, 
though  it  may  require  more  labor  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
since  he  must  prepare  them  with  such  omissions  as  may 
serve  the  ends  in  view,  is  more  effective  in  the  formation  of 
right  habits  than  the  exercise  of  correcting  sentences.  The 
latter  is  as  likely  to  impress  errors  as  truths.  Nevertheless, 
the  incorrect  sentences  used  by  pupils  should  be  subjected  to 
most  careful  reconstruction. 

The  Number  of  Subjects  in  Elementary  Grammar.  Just 
how  much  ground  to  cover  in  two  years  of  elementary  gram- 
mar, must,  of  course,  depend  much  upon  the  capacity  of  the 
class  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher.  It  does  not  seem  necessary, 
however,  nor  desirable,  to  teach  all  the  concepts  and  rules  of 


214         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

grammar,  even  in  their  most  elementary  phases.  Much  of  this 
work  can  be  done  with  greater  satisfaction  in  the  intermediate 
course. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Elementary  Grammar. 
The  ideal  method  of  study,  as  already  pointed  out,  consists  of 
observation,  induction,  and  deduction,  in  the  order  just  sub- 
mitted. The  ideal  method  of  instruction  (see  Principles  of 
Instruction)  should,  therefore,  cause  these  mental  processes  in 
the  pupil. 

The  Method  of  Observation  in  Elementary  Grammar.  Ex- 
amples of  that  which  is  to  be  taught  must  be  presented  to  the 
pupil's  attention.  The  pupil's  inquiry  must  be  assisted  by 
means  of  questions,  hints,  etc.  In  this  way  the  elementary 
facts  of  grammar  may  be  taught. 

The  Method  of  Induction  in  Elementary  Grammar.  Many 
instances  of  that  which  is  to  be  taught  must  be  presented  to 
the  child's  attention.  Such  questions,  hints,  etc.,  as  may  help 
the  pupil  to  see  that  what  is  true  of  instances  is  generally  true, 
must  be  added  with  great  care.  The  pupil  will  need  the 
teacher's  constant  guidance  in  the  original  definitions,  original 
statement  of  rules,  and  original  illustrations,  which  must  be 
required  as  the  necessary  discipline  in  induction. 

The  Method  of  Deduction  in  Elementary  Grammar.  The 
difficulties  in  parsing,  analyzing,  etc.,  as  they  present  them- 
selves in  elementary  grammar,  must  be  divided  and  adapted 
to  the  pupil's  power.  The  necessary  concepts  in  these  deduc- 
tive judgments  must  be  kept  perfect  in  the  pupil's  mind,  lest 
confusion  should  result.  Sentences  in  which  the  ideas  are  too 
abstract  and  general,  or  the  thought  too  complex,  must,  of 
course,  be  avoided  in  elementary  deductions. 

Illustrative  Lessons  in  Elementary  Grammar.  The 
following  lessons  are  subjoined  as  illustrations  of  the  method 
just  described.  They  are  designed  as  suggestions,  and  should 
not  be  slavishly  imitated  by  methods-students. 


GRAMMAE  215 

The  Concept  "  Noun."  Teacher.  Please  name  five  objects, 
James.  J.  Box,  hat,  pencil,  chair,  apple.  T.  Since  these 
words  are  names  of  objects,  what  may  we  call  them,  Kate? 
K.  Perhaps  we  may  call  them  object-words.  T.  What  then 
is  an  object-word  ?  K.  An  object- word  is  the  name  of  an  ob- 
ject. T.  An  object-word  may  be  called  a  Noun.  Who  can 
define  a  noun  ?  James.  The  name  of  an  object  is  called  a 
'Noun.  T.  Please  find  the  noims  in  this  sentence  (writing  it 
on  the  board).  Write  the  nouns  of  your  yesterday's  reading 
lesson,  and  bring  the  list  to-morrow  morning.  (The  complete 
definition  should  be  developed  in  the  next  few  lessons.) 

The  Concept  "  Verb."  Teacher.  Nell,  what  do  birds  do  ? 
N.  Birds  sing,  fly,  eat,  drink.  T.  Since  these  words  are  the 
names  of  actions,  what  may  we  call  them  ?  Robert.  Action- 
words.  T.  What  then  is  an  action-word  ?  R.  The  name  of 
an  action  is  called  an  action-word.  T.  An  action-word  may 
be  called  a  verb.  Who  can  define  a  verb  ?  Emily.  The  name 
of  an  action  is  called  a  Verb.  T.  Please  find  the  verbs  in  this 
sentence  (writing  it).  Make  a  list  of  verbs  in  your  reading 
lesson  of  yesterday,  and  bring  the  list  to-morrow  morning. 
(The  complete  definition  should  be  taught  in  the  following 
lessons.) 

The  Concept  "Adjective."  Teacher.  Are  these  objects 
in  all  respects  alike  ?  Alfred.  The  pencil  is  round  and  black ; 
the  ruler  is  flat  and  brown.  T.  Since  the  ^vords  round,  black, 
flat,  and  brown  name  the  qualities  of  objects,  what  may  we 
call  them,  class?  C.  Quality- words.  T.  But  since  these 
words  name  the  quality  of  objects,  what  kind  of  quality- 
words  should  we  call  them?  C,  Quality-object- words.  T. 
What  then  is  a  quality-object- word,  John  ?  J.  The  name  of 
the  quality  of  an  object  is  called  a  quality-object-word.  T. 
A  quality-object-word  may  be  called  an  Adjective.  (The 
teacher  should  explain  fully.)  T.  Who  can  define  an  adjec- 
tive ?     Mildred.  The  name  of  a  quality  of  an  object  is  called 


216         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

an  Adjective.  T.  Please  find  the  adjectives  in  this  sentence 
(writing  it).  Write  in  a  column  on  your  slate  the  adjectives 
in  your  yesterday's  reading  lesson,  and  bring  the  list  to  the 
grammar  recitation  to-morrow.  (The  complete  definition  of 
adjectives  should  be  developed  soon  after  pronouns.) 

Tho  Concept  "Adverb."  Teacher.  Are  the  actions  which 
you  observe  (moving  in  various  ways)  in  all  respects  alike, 
Thomas  ?  T.  Sometimes  you  walked  fast  and  then  slowly ; 
sometimes  you  looked  up  and  then  down.  Teacher.  Since  the 
words  fast,  slowly,  up,  and  down  name  the  qualities  of  actions, 
what  may  we  call  them?  Mary.  Quality-action- words.  T. 
To  what  part  of  speech  are  they  added,  Thomas?  T.  To 
verbs.  Teacher.  For  that  reason  quality-action-words  are 
called  Adverbs.  Who  can  define  an  adverb?  Mary.  The 
name  of  a  quality  of  an  action  is  called  an  Adverb.  T.  Please 
find  the  adverbs  in  these  sentences  (writing  a  number  of  sen- 
tences). Write  in  a  column  the  adverbs  of  your  yesterday's 
reading  lesson,  and  bring  the  list  to-morrow.  (The  develop- 
ment of  the  complete  definition  of  an  adverb  will  require  com- 
parisons of  the  qualities  of  objects  and  of  actions.  Pupils 
should  be  required  to  write  illustrative  sentences.) 

The  Concept  "  Subject."  (The  pupils  have  learned  what 
a  sentence  is,  and  the  species  of  sentence,  in  language  work.) 
Teacher.  Which  word  in  the  sentence  (Birds  sing)  which  I 
have  just  written,  names  that  about  which  something  is  said  ? 
Helen.  The  noun  bi7^ds.  T.  What  is  that  about  which  we 
write  in  a  composition  called,  Claude?  C.  It  is  called  the 
Subject.  T.  What  then  may  we  call  the  word  birds  in  our 
sentence  ?  C.  The  subject  of  the  sentence.  T.  Who  can  de- 
fine the  subject  of  a  sentence  ?  Florence.  That  about  which 
something  is  said  in  a  sentence,  is  called  the  Subject.  T.  Please 
name  the  subjects  of  the  sentences  that  I  shall  read  from  this 
book.  Write  in  a  column  the  subjects  of  the  sentences  of 
your  to-day's  reading  lesson,  and  bring  the  list  to-morrow. 


GRAMMAR  217 

(The  pupils  should  be  required  to  construct  original  sentences, 
underscoring  the  subject.  The  fact  that  phrases  and  clauses 
can  be  subjects,  should  probably  not  be  taught  the  first  year.) 

The  Concept  "Predicate."  Teacher.  In  this  sentence 
(the  teacher  writes  Boys  run),  which  word  tells  something 
about  the  subject,  Frank  ?  F.  The  verb  run.  T.  Since  the 
word  run  tells  or  asserts  something  about  the  subject,  what 
might  we  call  it  ?  F.  A.  telling,  or  asserting  word.  T.  Yes  ; 
or  a  Predicate.  Who  can  define  a  predicate  ?  Mary.  That 
which  is  said  about  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  is  called  the 
Predicate.  (Exercises  like  those  under  the  preceding  heads, 
should  be  added.  The  fact  that  the  verb  of  interrogative  and 
imperative  sentences  is  also  a  predicate  should  be  taught  in 
the  next  lesson.  Attributes  and  objects  should  be  introduced 
soon  afterwards.) 

The  Concept  "  Modifier."  Teacher.  Please  read  the  sen- 
tence which  I  have  written,  Elmer.  E.  "  Good  bdys  study 
faithfully."  T.  Which  word  names  the  quality  of  the  sub- 
ject, Gertrude?  G.  The  adjective  good.  T.  And  which 
word  names  the  quality  of  the  predicate  ?  G.  The  adverb 
faithfully.  T.  Such  words  are  called  Modifiers.  James,  what 
then  is  a  Modifier  ?  J!  A  word  that  names  the  quality  of 
the  subject  or  predicate,  is  called  a  Modifier.  T.  Since  the 
word  good  is  an  adjective,  what  kind  of  a  modifier  may  we 
call  it?  /.  An  adjective  modifier.  T.  And  the  word /mYA- 
fully  f  J.  An  adverbial  modifier.  T.  Please  define  an  ad- 
jective modifier.  An  adverbial  modifier.  (Exercises  similar 
to  those  already  suggested  should  be  added.  The  use  of 
phrases  and  clauses,  as  modifiers,  and  the  modification  of 
attributes  and  objects,  should  be  gradually  introduced.  Only 
one  new  point  should  be  attempted  at  a  time.  Concepts  al- 
ready taught  should  be  frequently  reviewed.  The  methods- 
students  should  be  required  to  write  out  the  suggested  recita- 
tions.) 


218         PEINOIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Concept  "Pronoun."  Teacher.  John,  please  read 
the  sentence  which  I  have  written.  J.  "  Mildred  holds  Mil- 
dred's book."  T.  And  this  sentence,  James?  J.  "George 
holds  George's  wheel."  T.  How  could  we  express  the  same 
thoughts  without  repeating  the  words  Mildred  and  George  f 
J.  We  can  say  "  Mildred  holds  her  book,"  and  "  George  holds 
his  wheel."  T.  Of  what  parts  of  speech  do  the  words  his  and 
her  take  the  place,  Annie?  A.  They  take  the  place  of  nouns. 
T.  What  may  we  call  words  used  for  nouns  ?  JL.  I  think  we 
may  call  them  for-nouns.  T.  Yes  ;  or  Pronouns,  because  pro 
means  for,  or  instead  of .  Who  can  define  a  pronoun?  G.  A 
word  used  for  a  noun  is  called  a  Pronoun.  T.  Please  open 
your  readers  and  find  the  pronouns  in  your  yesterday's  lesson. 
James,  you  may  write  these  pronouns  on  the  board  as  fast  as 
your  classmates  find  them  for  you. 

The  Concept  "  Conjunction."  Teacher.  Please  read  the 
sentence  which  I  have  written,  Mary.  M.  "  He  sells  books 
and  pictures."  T.  What  word  connects  two  words  in  the  sen- 
tence? M.  The  word  and  connects  the  words  hoohs  and 
pictures.  T.  What  may  we  call  words  that  connect  or  con- 
join others?  31.  We  might  call  them  conjoining  words.  T. 
Yes ;  conjoining  words,  or  Conjunctions.  Who  can  define  a 
conjunction  ?  (Such  exercises  as  have  been  suggested  should 
follow.  The  other  uses  of  conjunctions  should  be  introduced 
one  at  a  time.) 

The  Concept  "  Preposition."  (The  meaning  of  the  word 
"  relation"  can  be  best  taught  by  using  it.)  Teacher.  Where 
is  the  book,  Mary  ?  M.  On  the  table.  T.  And  now  ?  M. 
It  is  under  the  table.  T.  And  where  is  it  now  ?  M.  In  my 
lap.  T.  Which  words  then  did  you  use  to  express  the  rela- 
tion of  the  book  and  table,  or  your  lap  ?  M.  The  words  on, 
under,  and  in.  T.  What  may  we  call  words  which  show  the 
relation  of  things  ?  Mabel.  Relation- words.  T.  Yes ;  or 
Prepositions.     (The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  why  they  are 


GRAMMAR  219 

SO  called,  but  not  at  first.)  T.  James,  what  is  a  preposition  ? 
J.  A  word  which  shows  the  relation  of  things  is  called  a 
Preposition.     (The  usual  exercises  should  follow.) 

The  Concept  "  Case."  (This  property  can  be  most  con- 
veniently taught  at  first  by  means  of  pronouns,  where  the /orm 
of  the  word  is  a  help.)  Teacher.  Please  read  the  sentences 
which  I  have  written,  Charles.  C.  "  James  struck  me."  "  I 
struck  James."  "  James  hit  my  hand."  T.  Do  the  words  I 
and  me,  and  my,  refer  to  different  persons  ?  C.  They  all  refer 
to  the  same  person.  T.  If  these  words  all  refer  to  the  same 
person,  why  are  they  not  all  spelled  the  same  way  ?  Emily. 
They  are  not  used  the  same  way  :  the  word  I  is  the  subject  of 
a  sentence ;  the  word  me  is  an  object ;  and  the  word  my  denotes 
ownership.  T.  These  changes  of  form  to  suit  the  use  of  words 
as  subject,  object,  and  owner,  are  termed  Case.  Since  the 
word  me  names  the  object  of  the  sentence,  in  what  case  may  we 
say  that  it  is,  Ralph  ?  R.  In  the  ohject-case.  T.  Yes  ;  or  the 
Objective  case.  What  words  then  are  said  to  be  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  Mildred  ?  Jf.  A  word  used  as  the  object  of  a  sen- 
tence, is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  T.  Since  the  word 
my  denotes  ownership  or  possession,  in  what  case  is  it  ?  M. 
In  the  Possessive  case.  T.  What  words  therefore  are  in  the 
possessive  case?  M.  A  word  that  denotes  possession,  is  said 
to  be  in  the  possessive  case.  T.  A  word  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  sentence,  is  said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  case.  James, 
please  name  the  three  possible  cases  that  we  have  now  found. 
Describe  each  case.  (Sentences  in  which  nouns  are  used  in- 
stead of  pronouns,  should  next  be  studied.  The  objective  case 
after  prepositions,  can  also  be  most  conveniently  taught  with 
pronouns.  The  possessive  form  of  nouns  should  be  carefully 
studied.  Special  lessons  on  the  nominative  case  by  address 
may  be  attempted  the  second  year.  The  nominative  absolute 
should  probably  not  be  attempted  before  the  intermediate 
course.     The  other  properties  of  nouns  and  pronouns  should 


220         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

be  taught  in  the  same  way  as  Case.  The  methods-students 
should  be  required  to  write  out  recitations  on  person,  gender, 
and  number.) 

The  Concept  Tense.  Teacher.  Ruth,  please  read  the 
sentences  which  I  have  just  written.  R.  "  Mary  laughs." 
"  Mary  laughed."  "  Mary  will  laugh."  T.  To  what  times  do 
the  verbs  in  these  sentences  refer,  Henry  ?  H.  The  first  verb 
refers  to  present  time  ;  the  second,  to  past  time  ;  and  the  third, 
to  future  time.  T.  The  change  of  form  in  words  to  denote 
different  times,  is  called  Tense.  Since  the  word  laughs  denotes 
present  time,  in  what  tense  may  we  say  that  it  is,  Emma  ?  E. 
In  the  present  tense.  T.  The  word  laughed  f  E.  In  the  past 
tense.  T.  And  the  words  will  laugh  f  E.  In  \\ie  future  tense. 
T.  Mary,  what  is  meant  by  tense?  Present  tense?  Past 
tense?  Future  tense?  (The  other  tenses,  and  all  the  other 
properties  of  the  verb,  should  be  taught  in  the  way  suggested. 
The  methods-students  should  be  required  to  write  out  the 
necessary  recitations.) 

The  Concept  "  Comparison."  Teacher.  Newton,  please 
read  the  sentences  on  the  board.  N.  "Maude's  picture  is 
grand."  "Miriam's  picture  is  grander  than  Maude's." 
"  Grace's  picture  is  the  grandest  of  all."  T.  Please  under- 
score the  words  which  tell  the  quality  of  the  pictures,  James. 
(James  underscores  the  right  words.)  T.  Why  are  these 
words  not  all  alike  in  form  ?  J.  To  denote  unlikeness  in  the 
quality  of  the  pictures.  Teacher.  Change  in  the  endings  in 
adjectives  and  adverbs  to  express  degree  in  quality,  is  termed 
Comparison.  The  first  degree  is  termed  Positive  ;  the  second, 
ComiMrative ;  and  the  third,  or  highest,  Superlative.  (These 
terms,  though  introduced  arbitrarily  at  first,  should  be  ex- 
plained as  soon  as  possible.  The  various  spellings  of  regular 
and  irregular  adjectives  and  adverbs,  should  be  illustrated, 
and  finally  classified.  The  methods-students  should  be  re- 
quired to  write  out  the  necessary  recitations.)    . 


GRAMMAR  221 

The  Concepts  "Regular"  and  "Irregular"  Verb. 
Teacher.  Please  read  the  sentences  on  the  board,  Grace. 
G.  "  The  boy  honored  his  father."  "  She  sang  a  beautiful 
hymn."  T.  What  is  the  tense  of  both  verbs  ?  G.  The  past 
tense.  T.  How  is  the  past  tense,  or  preterit,  formed  in  the 
first  sentence,  Robert  ?  R.  By  adding  ed  to  the  present  tense 
form  ?  T.  That  is  the  usual,  or  regular,  way  of  forming  the 
preterit  of  verbs.  What  therefore  may  we  call  verbs  whose 
preterit  is  thus  formed  ?  R.  Regular  vevhs.  T.  Ruth,  what 
is  a  regular  verb  ?  An  irregular  verb  ?  (Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  classify  verbs  whose  preterit  is  formed  by  adding 
d,  as  ceased,  with  irregular  verbs.)  Please  think  of  five  reg- 
ular verbs,  Helen.  Mary,  find  five  irregular  verbs  in  this 
reader.  (The  usual  exercises  should,  of  course,  not  be  omitted. 
All  the  classes  of  the  parts  of  speech  should  be  taught  in  the 
same  way.  The  methods-students  should  be  required  to  write 
out  the  necessary  recitations.) 

The  "  Element"  Concepts.  Teacher.  Please  read  the  sen- 
tence on  the  board,  Harry.  H.  "  Alas  !  Poor  David  wept 
very  bitterly  and  very  penitently."  T.  Which  are  the  neces- 
sary parts  in  this  sentence  ?  H.  The  subject  and  the  predi- 
cate. T.  Since  the  subject  and  predicate  are  the  necessary 
parts,  or  elements,  of  a  sentence,  what  may  we  call  them, 
Walter  ?  W.  The  necessary  elements.  T.  Yes  ;  the  neces- 
sary, or  Principal  Elements.  T.  Since  the  modifiers  of  the 
subject  and  predicate,  including  the  attribute  and  object,  are 
not  essential  elements  of  the  sentence,  what  may  we  call  such 
modifiers,  Thomas  ?  Thomas.  Perhaps  it  would  do  to  call 
them  modifier  elements.  T.  That  name  would  do ;  they  are 
commonly  called  Subordinate  Elements.  Please  point  out  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  elements  of  the  sentence  which 
you  read.  Why  are  they  so  called  ?  What  parts  of  speech 
are  the  words  poor,  bitterly,  and  penitently,  James  ?  J.  Poor 
is  an  adjective  ;  the  other  words  are  adverbs.     T.  Then  what 


222         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

may  we  call  these  elements  ?  J.  Adjective  elements  and  ad- 
verbial elements.  (The  term  Adjunct  may  be  introduced  at 
this  point.)  T.  Since  it  is  the  business  of  conjunctions  to 
connect,  what  kind  of  an  element  may  we  call  the  word  and, 
Grace  ?  G.  A  Connective  Element.  T.  Since  Alas  is  not  at 
all  connected  with  the  sentence  so  far  as  its  form  goes,  what 
may  we  call  it,  May  ?  M.  We  might  call  it  the  Independent 
Element.  (Other  sentences  illustrating  the  same  points  should 
be  studied  until  the  new  terms  are  familiar.  By  and  by 
phrases  and  clauses  should  be  introduced  as  subordinate  ele- 
ments ;  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive  adverbs  should  be 
made  connectives  ;  and  other  words  besides  interjections  should 
be  used  as  independent  elements.  The  methods-students  should 
be  required  to  write  out  the  necessary  recitations.) 

The  "  Rules"  of  Grammar.  The  rules  of  grammar  should 
be  introduced  the  second  year,  but  not  until  the  anatomy 
(see  the  preceding  study)  of  the  sentence  is  pretty  familiar. 
One  illustration  must  suffice.  Teacher.  Please  read  the  sen- 
tence on  the  board.  Alma.  A.  "  The  boy  whom  the  gypsies 
had  stolen,  has  been  recovered."  T.  What  part  of  speech  is 
the  word  whom  f  A.  k.  relative  pronoun.  (It  is  presumed 
that  this  concept  was  developed  under  classes  of  the  parts  of 
speech.)  T.  What  is  the  person  of  the  word  whom,  Elsie? 
E.  It  is  of  the  third  person  (this  concept  was  developed 
under  properties  of  nouns  and  pronouns),  because  its  ante- 
cedent is  of  that  person.  T.  What  other  properties  of  whom 
do  we  know  by  its  antecedent,  Calvin  ?  G.  The  number  and 
gender.  T.  Put  all  these  truths  into  one  sentence,  George. 
G.  A  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person, 
number,  and  gender.  T.  What  you  have  just  said  is  always 
true  of  relative  pronouns.  Such  general  truths  are  termed 
Rides.  Hereafter  when  you  parse  a  relative  pronoun,  you 
will  be  expected  to  remember  the  rule  which  you  found  just 
now.      (The   methods-student  should   be   required   to  write 


GKAMMAE  223 

out  the  necessary  recitations  for  the  development  of  several 
rules.) 

A  Word  to  Methods-Students.  Methods-students  should 
not  expect  too  great  success  in  these  inductive-deductive  les- 
sons at  first,  nor  should  they  hope  to  obtain  ideal  answers 
from  their  pupils.  If,  however,  the  main  course  be  kept  in 
mind,  deviations  can  be  corrected. 

III.  INTERMEDIATE  GRAMMAR. 

The  distinctive  features  of  intermediate,  as  well  as  of  ele- 
mentary grammar,  present  themselves  under  the  following 
heads :  (1)  The  Objects  of  the  Course ;  (2)  Its  Subjects  ;  and 
(3)  The  Method  of  Instruction. 

The  Objects  of  Intermediate  Grammar.  The  object  of 
intermediate  grammar  (see  The  Number  of  Courses)  is  greater 
perfection  in  its  inductions  and  deductions. 

The  Inductions  of  Intermediate  Grammar.  The  concepts 
developed  in  elementary  grammar,  require  enlargement.  It  is 
seldom  possible  to  develop  some  of  the  most  essential  concepts 
of  syntax  before  the  high  school  epoch.  The  development  of 
complete  definitions  in  so  abstract  a  study  as  grammar,  re- 
quires considerable  maturity.  The  same  is  true  of  rules  as 
expressions  of  remote  relations. 

The  Deductions  of  Intermediate  Gi^ammar.  The  deductive 
comparisons  required  in  parsing  and  analyzing  comjjlex  and 
compound  sentences,  presupposing  complete  development  of 
concepts  and  rules,  are  for  that  reason  impossible  for  most 
pupils  before  the  high  school  epoch.  The  successful  deduc- 
tive construction  of  all  species  of  sentences  (the  practical  ob- 
ject of  grammar),  presupposes  correct  standards  of  comparison 
and  critical  habit,  and  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  tasks  of 
maturer  minds. 

The  Subjects  of  Intermediate  Grammar.  The  great 
subjects  of  intermediate,  or  high  school  grammar,  in  accord- 


224        PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ance  with  its  objects,  are :  (1)  Definitions ;  (2)  Rules ;  (8)  In- 
flections ;  (4)  Parsing ;  (5)  Analysis  ;  and  (6)  Exercises  in  Syn- 
tax. Three  or  four  years  should  be  devoted  to  this  course, 
the  number  of  recitations  to  be  determined  by  practical  con- 
siderations. 

Definitions  in  Intermediate  Grammar.  (1)  The  incom- 
plete definitions  developed  in  elementary  grammar  should 
now  be  completed,  care  being  taken  that  all  definitions  are 
correct  descriptions  of  the  pupil's  conceptions.  (2)  New  defi- 
nitions, descriptions  of  the  new  concepts  developed  in  the  in- 
termediate course,  must,  of  course,  be  added.  (3)  In  order  to 
make  the  concepts  contained  in  definitions  permanent  posses- 
sions, and  thus  ready  standards  for  the  deductive  comparisons 
necessary  in  parsing,  analyzing,  and  syntax,  intermediate 
pupils  should  be  required  to  commit  definitions.  For  practical 
reasons,  it  is  probably  best  to  require  intermediate  pupils 
to  commit  the  text-book  definitions,  or  those  of  the  teacher, 
but  always  in  connection  with  the  necessary  inductive  ap- 
proaches. 

Rules  in  Intermediate  Grammar,  (1)  As  a  practical 
guide  in  constructing  sentences,  the  "  rules"  of  grammar,  i.e., 
the  statements  of  its  general  truths,  must,  of  course,  be  com- 
mitted, at  least  virtually  if  not  verbatim,  but  never  until  the 
necessary  inductive  approaches  have  been  made.  For  reasons 
of  economy,  the  statements  of  the  text-book  in  use  are  prob- 
ably the  most  convenient.  (2)  "Notes"  and  "exceptions," 
though  of  great  practical  importance,  should  not  be  committed 
verbatim,  since  their  contents  can  be  readily  associated  with 
the  "  rules"  to  which  they  belong.  Familiarity  with  these 
notes  and  exceptions  is,  however,  a  practical  necessity. 

Inflections  in  Intermediate  Grammar.  (1)  In  elemen- 
tary grammar,  inflections,  i.e.,  declensions  and  conjugations, 
must  necessarily  be  fragmentary ;  but,  in  intermediate  gram- 
mar, these  fragments  should  be  gradually  collected  into  wholes, 


GRAMMAR  225 

mastered  in  thought,  and  memorized.  (2)  Irregular  declen- 
sions and  conjugations  require  special  attention.  The  princi- 
pal parts  of  irregular  verbs,  together  with  other  irregularities 
of  the  parts  of  speech,  should  be  thoroughly  memorized  and 
frequently  used  in  syntax. 

Parsing  in  Intermediate  Grammar.  The  deductive  ex- 
planation of  "  words  in  sentences,"  like  inflection,  must  neces- 
sarily be  fragmentary  in  elementary  grammar.  In  other 
words,  elementary  pupils  should  be  expected  to  point  out  the 
parts  of  speech  in  question,  naming  such  properties  as  may 
have  been  studied,  and  answering  such  questions  as  the  teacher 
may  put.  But,  in  intermediate  grammar,  parsing  should  be- 
come a  definite  system  of  explanations. 

Forms  of  Parsing.  Some  definite  plan,  or  scheme,  of 
parsing,  commonly  the  scheme  of  the  book  in  use,  should  be 
adhered  to  in  intermediate  classes.  In  parsing  a  noun,  for 
example,  the  scheme  might  consist  of  the  following  order:  (1) 
Class  ;  (2)  Gender ;  (3)  Person ;  (4)  Number ;  (5)  Case ;  and 
(6)  Rule.  Whatever  scheme  may  be  adopted,  it  should  be  as 
simple  and  logical  as  possible.  Every  part  of  a  scheme 
should  be  thoroughly  understood,  lest  parsing  become  a 
meaningless  repetition  of  words.  To  be  practically  service- 
able, such  forms  must  be  memorized.  Forms  of  parsing  are 
necessary  for  several  reasons  :  (1)  They  enable  pupils  to  parse 
a  word  completely  without  hesitation,  thus  saving  time ;  (2) 
They  enable  the  listening  pupils  and  the  teacher  to  detect 
and  remember  errors  more  effectively,  and  thus  serve  the  in- 
terests of  the  recitation ;  and  (3)  They  promote  habits  of  order- 
liness in  written  recitations,  and  economize  time  in  criticising 
such  recitations. 

Enthymeme  Statements  in  Parsing.  For  some  time,  at  least, 
intermediate  as  well  as  elementary  pupils  should  be  required 
to  add  reasons  to  their  statements  in  parsing  words.  In  the 
sentence,  "  Man  is  mortal,"  the  word  is,  for  example,  should 

16 


226         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

be  parsed  as  follows  :  Js  is  a  neuter  verb,  because  it  expresses 
being ;  etc.  To  save  time  and  to  preserve  thoughtfulness, 
those  reasons  with  which  the  pupil  is  known  to  be  familiar, 
should  not  be  required.  Rules  should  generally  be  fully 
stated.  The  objects  of  enthymeme  statements  in  parsing  are 
as  follows  :  (1)  The  requirements  tend  to  make  the  concepts 
presupposed  in  these  deductive  judgments,  permanent  posses- 
sions ;  (2)  It  is  an  admirable  discipline  in  syllogistic  thought, 
promoting  right  habit  and  preparing  for  logic. 

Simple  Statements  in  Parsing.  As  soon  as  it  seems  safe  for 
pupils  to  do  so,  they  should  be  required  to  parse  words  com- 
pletely without  adding  reasons  to  classifications.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "  Great  Cassar  fell,"  the  word  great,  for  example,  should 
be  parsed  as  follows  :  The  word  great  is  a  descriptive  adjective 
of  the  positive  degree ;  it  modifies  the  word  Csesar,  according 
to  the  rule,  "  Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  and  pronouns."  To 
make  sure  that  pupils  parsing  this  way  do  not  let  acquired 
concepts  slip,  and  that  they  think  as  well  as  speak  in  parsing, 
the  teacher  must  ask  for  reasons  wherever  he  suspects  defec- 
tions. The  reasons  for  parsing  in  this  way  are  as  follows : 
(1)  It  saves  time  without  injury  to  the  pupil's  mind ;  (2)  It  is 
an  admirable  discipline  in  rapid  thinking,  promoting  the  habit 
of  decision  in  connection  with  that  of  accuracy ;  and  (3)  It 
is  more  interesting  to  parse  in  this  way  when  much  of  it  has 
to  be  done. 

Abbreviations  in  Parsing.  In  written  parsing  some  system 
of  abbreviations  is  convenient.  The  following  scheme  is  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  E.  O.  Lyte  in  his  "Grammar  and  Composi- 
tion." Write  the  sentence  whose  words  are  to  be  parsed  in 
one  line  if  possible.  Draw  a  line  under  the  words  to  be 
parsed,  and  write  the  initial  letters  of  the  parsing  in  a  vertical 
column  under  the  respective  words.  Do  not  use  punctuation 
marks.  When  necessary,  use  a  dotted  line  to  separate  the 
written  parsing  of  two  words. 


GRAMMAR  227 

Illustration : 

The  enemy  advancing,  he  ordered  the  signal  to  be  given. 


r  i  n  V 

r  t  f  V 

it  —  n  V 

par 
pr 

a 

ind 

P 

inf 

enemy 
(rule) 

pa 
he 
3 

pr 

signal 
(rule) 

(rule) 


For  fuller  explanation  the  student  is  respectfully  referred  to 
Dr.  Lyte's  Grammar  and  Composition. 

The  objects  of  such  abbreviations  are  as  follows :  (1)  The 
plan  is  serviceable  in  preparing  lessons  for  the  teacher's  in- 
spection ;  (2)  It  is  useful  in  combination  with  oral  parsing,  as 
a  variation  from  the  full  forms,  and  as  a  means  of  parsing 
more  sentences  in  a  given  time.  (3)  The  plan  must,  how- 
ever, be  carefully  guarded,  lest  pupils  make  it  a  system  of 
deceptions. 

Eclectic  Parsing.  As  a  rule,  intermediate  pupils  should  be 
required  to  parse  the  words  of  a  sentence  in  order.  By  and 
by,  however,  the  process  of  parsing  should  become  eclectic. 
There  are  two  species  of  eclective  parsing :  (1)  Those  words 
or  parts  of  speech  with  which  the  pupils  are  known  to  be 
familiar,  may  be  ignored ;  and  (2)  The  teacher  may  ask  such 
questions  about  certain  words  in  the  sentence  as  seem  to  him 
to  test  the  pupil's  knowledge.  Both  forms  are  convenient  with 
advanced  pupils :  (1)  The  plan  saves  time  and  tends  to  pre- 
serve interest  in  grammar ;  (2)  It  is  a  better  mode  of  discipline, 
since  it  requires  constant  attention  and  thoughtful  judgment. 

The  Proportion  of  Oral  and  Wntten  Parsing.  Oral  parsing 
takes  less  time,  but  written  parsing  is  a  better  discipline  in 
language.  Written  parsing  saves  time  as  a  supplement  in 
recitations,  and  is  a  convenient  mode  of  exhibiting  the  prepara- 


228         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion  of  lessons.  Oral  parsing,  though  not  as  eifective  as  a  dis- 
cipline in  language,  is  indispensable  as  a  language  exercise. 
Probably  younger  pupils  should  do  more  oral,  and  older  pupils 
more  written  parsing. 

Errors  in  Parsing.  There  are  two  species  of  errors  in 
parsing  :  (1)  The  pupil  may  say  the  wrong  thing,  as  when  he 
calls  a  verb  a  noun  though  he  knows  better.  This  is  termed 
an  error  of  form.  (2)  The  pupil  may  have  the  wrong  idea,  as 
when  he  regards  a  regular  verb  irregular.  This  is  termed  an 
error  of  judgment.  Errors  of  form  are  due  either  to  thought- 
lessness or  slips  of  the  tongue,  and  may  be  remedied  by  re- 
moving the  causes.  Errors  of  judgment  are  due  either  to  im- 
perfect inductions  or  slips  of  memory,  and  must  be  remedied 
by  perfect  induction  or  review. 

The  Objects  of  Parsing.  The  objects  of  parsing  are  as  fol- 
lows :  (1)  To  exercise  pupils  in  acquired  knowledge,  thus 
making  it  a  permanent  possession ;  (2)  To  exercise  pupils  in 
deductive  judgments,  thus  developing  the  important  power 
of  deductive  thought ;  and  (3)  To  equip  pupils  with  standard 
conceptions  for  the  criticism  and  construction  of  sentences. 

Analysis  in  Intermediate  Grammar.  In  elementary 
grammar,  the  pupil  is  confined  almost  altogether  to  simple 
sentences  and  informal  analysis.  The  intermediate  course  is 
concerned  more  especially  with  complex  and  compound  sen- 
tences, and  the  process  of  analysis  becomes  a  complete  system 
of  deductive  explanation. 

Forms  of  Analysis.  There  are  two  possible  forms,  or  plans, 
of  analyzing  a  sentence,  the  synthetic  and  the  analytic  :  (1)  In 
synthetic  analysis  the  simple  subject  and  predicate  are  named, 
and  their  adjuncts  added.  Take  this  sentence  for  example : 
The  man  who  committed  that  dreadful  crime,  was  arrested  by 
the  officers.  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  consist- 
ing of  one  principal  and  one  dependent  clause.  The  simple 
subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  man,  modified  by  the  adjec- 


GRAMMAR  229 

tive  adjuncts  the  and  the  relative  clause  who  committed  that 
dreadful  cfime.  The  simple  subject  of  this  dependent  clause, 
is  who,  the  predicate  of  the  clause  is  committed,  and  the  object 
crime,  modified  by  the  adjective  adjuncts  that  and  dreadful. 
The  whole,  or  logical  subject  is,  therefore,  The  man  who  com- 
mitted that  dreadful  crime.  The  simple  predicate  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause  is  was  arrested,  modified  by  the  adverbial  adjunct 
phrase  by  the  ojicer's,  of  which  phrase  officers  is  the  object, 
modified  by  the  adjective  adjunct  the,  and  governed  by  the 
preposition  by.  The  whole  predicate  of  the  principal  clause  is 
was  arrested  by  the  officers.  (2)  In  analytic  analysis  the  whole 
subject  and  predicate  of  the  principal  clause,  are  named  first. 
The  whole  subject  is  then  analyzed  into  its  parts,  as  in  syn- 
thetic analysis,  the  dependent  clause  included.  The  same 
thing  is  done  with  the  principal  predicate.  (3)  The  synthetic 
form  of  analysis  is  a  little  simpler  and  allows  more  time  for 
reflection,  and  is,  therefore,  more  appropriate  for  younger 
pupils,  while  the  analytic  form  is  more  logical  and  should, 
therefore,  be  used  by  older  pupils. 

Enthymeme  Statements  in  Analysis.  Until  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  pupils  use  the  technical  language  of  analysis  intel- 
ligently, they  should  be  required  to  add  reasons  to  statements, 
as  in  parsing.  This  requirement  seems  self-evident,  but  it  has 
been  so  commonly  violated,  and  with  such  bad  effects  on  the 
mental  life  of  pupils,  that  it  must  be  urged  upon  teachers  as 
the  indispensable  thing. 

Simple  Statements  in  Analysis.  When  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  technical  language  of  grammatical  analysis  is  under- 
stood by  the  pupils,  they  should  not  be  required  to  use  enthy- 
meme statements.  For  illustrations,  see  the  analysis  of  the 
sentence  under  "  Forms  of  Analysis."  The  reasons  for  such 
simple  statements  in  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  are  the  same  as 
in  such  parsing.  (See  the  paragraph  on  "  Simple  Statements 
in  Parsing.") 


230         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OP  TEACHING 

Abbreviations  in  Analysis.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  as  in 
parsing,  and  for  the  same  reasons,  systems  of  abbreviation  are 
convenient.  Various  systems  of  such  analysis  are  proposed 
in  the  text-books  of  Brown,  Lyte,  Hadley,  and  others.  To 
these  books  on  grammar  the  methods-student  is  respectfully 
referred.  The  following  illustration  is  taken  from  Dr.  Lyte's 
"  Grammar  and  Composition."  It  is  the  analysis  of  the  sen- 
tence "  An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands." 


C'D 


Eclectic  Analysis.  With  advanced  pupils  time  can  be  saved 
and  thought  promoted  by  eclectic  analysis.  In  this  mode  of 
analysis  the  teacher  simply  inquires  into  the  difficulties  of  a 
lesson,  and,  if  the  answers  to  his  questions  are  satisfactory,  he 
assumes  that  his  pupils  understand  the  whole  lesson.  Eclec- 
tic analysis  is,  therefore,  a  risk  with  immature  pupils,  since  it 
assumes  too  much. 

Grammatical  Description.  Grammatical  description  is  an 
eclectic  union  of  parsing  and  analysis.  Its  design  is  two-fold  : 
(1)  It  saves  time  by  ignoring  unimportant  details;  and  (2)  It 
is  an  admirable  exercise  in  thinking.  It  is,  however,  not  ap- 
propriate for  younger  pupils,  since  it  presupposes  training  in 
both  parsing  and  analysis.  The  subjoined  treatment  of  the 
sentence,  The  little  bird  that  sang  so  sweetly  in  my  garden  yes- 
terday, was  tvounded  this  morning  by  a  hunter,  is  an  illustration 
of  the  synthetic  method  of  grammatical  description.  The 
analytic  method  is  readily  derived. 


GRAMMAR  231 

The  proposed  sentence  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  is  an  article ;  it  is  used  to  modify  bird.  Little  is  an  ad- 
jective ;  it  also  is  used  to  modify  bird.  Bird  is  a  noun ;  it  is 
used  as  the  subject  of  was  wounded.  That  is  a  relative  pro- 
noun, and  its  antecedent  is  bird ;  it  is  used  as  the  subject 
of  sang ;  it  introduces  the  clause  that  sang  so  sweetly  in  my 
garden  yesterday,  and  joins  it  to  bird.  Sang  is  a  verb ; 
its  subject  is  that.  So  is  an  adverb ;  it  is  used  to  modify 
sweetly.  Sweetly  is  an  adjective ;  it  modifies  sang.  In  is  a 
preposition ;  it  is  used  to  introduce  the  phrase  in  my  garden, 
and  joins  it  to  sang.  My  is  a  personal  pronoun ;  it  is  used  to 
modify  garden.  Garden  is  a  noun ;  it  is  used  as  the  object 
of  in.  That  sang  so  sweetly  in  my  garden  yesterday  is  a  clause 
used  as  an  adjective ;  it  modifies  bird.  The  little  bird  that  sang 
so  sweetly  in  my  garden  yesterday  is  the  entire  subject  of  the 
sentence.  Was  wounded  is  a  \'erb ;  its  simple  subject  is  bird. 
This  is  a  demonstrative  adjective ;  it  is  used  to  modify  mor-n- 
ing.  Morning  is  a  noun ;  it  is  used  as  an  adverb  of  time,  and 
modifies  was  luounded.  By  is  a  preposition  ;  it  is  used  to  in- 
troduce the  phrase  by  a  hunter,  and  joins  it  to  was  wounded. 
A  is  an  article,  and  modifies  hunter.  By  a  hunter  is  a  phrase 
used  as  an  adverb  ;  it  modifies  icas  wounded.  Was  wounded 
this  morning  by  a  hunter  is  the  entire  predicate  of  the  sentence. 

Diagr^ams  in  Grammar.  A  grammatical  diagram  is  a  pic- 
ture by  which  it  is  proposed  to  represent  to  the  eye  the  rela- 
tions of  words  in  sentences.  Professor  Clark's  system  is  a 
very  clever  invention,  and  has  been  favorably  received.  The 
system  used  in  Reed  and  Kellog's  grammar  not  only  "  looks 
well  on  the  board,"  but  is  an  effective  instrument  in  the 
teacher's  hands.  The  objections  to  grammatical  diagrams  are 
as  follows :  (1)  It  is  not  true  that  lines  and  directions  can 
picture  the  anatomy  of  thoughts;  (2)  The  diagram  that  will 
represent  the  anatomy  of  a  lengthy  complex  or  compound 
sentence,  is  probably   more  difficult  to  understand  than  the 


232         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

analysis  without  diagrams.  The  legitimate  uses  of  diagrams 
are  as  follows  :  (1)  They  represent  the  anatomy  of  a  sentenoe, 
and  are  thus  effective  helps  in  the  analysis  of  the  thought  of 
the  sentence ;  (2)  They  are  admirable  modes  of  written  recita- 
tion, saving  much  time  and  adding  interest  to  the  study  of 
grammar ;  and  (3)  They  are  useful  modes  of  preparing  lessons 
for  the  teacher's  inspection. 

It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  simplest  possible  system 
of  diagrams  is  the  only  justifiable  one,  and  that  even  then 
there  is  danger  of  making  the  diagram  too  prominent  at  the 
expense  of  the  pupil's  development  in  logical  independence. 

Errors  in  Analysis.  Two  species  of  error  are  possible  in 
analyzing  a  sentence :  (1)  The  pupil  may  err  in  language,  as 
when  he  miscalls  elements  of  the  sentence  or  misrepresents  re- 
lations by  diagrams  and  abbreviations.  These  errors  of  form 
are  caused  either  by  thoughtlessness,  slips  of  the  tongue,  slips 
of  memory,  or  defective  instruction.  The  removal  of  these 
causes  is  the  proper  remedy.  (2)  The  pupil  may  err  in 
thought,  as  when  he  mistakes  the  elements  of  a  sentence  or 
their  relations.  These  errors  of  judgment,  as  they  are  called, 
are  commonly  caused  either  by  inattention,  lack  of  prepara- 
tion, imperfect  inductions,  or  slips  of  memory.  The  causes 
should  be  removed. 

The  Proportion  of  Oral  and  Written  Analysis.  Oral  analy- 
sis is  probably  more  interesting  than  written  analysis,  and 
takes  less  time.  It  is  also  better  than  written  analysis  as  an 
exercise  in  rapid  thinking.  Written  analysis  is  the  proper 
supplement  in  recitation,  and  offers  a  better  opportunity  to  do 
correct  and  complete  work.  It  is  also  an  indispensable  re- 
quirement in  the  preparation  of  lessons  for  the  teacher's  inspec- 
tion. Probably,  therefore,  oral  analysis  should  preponderate 
over  written  analysis  in  younger  classes,  and  mce  versa  in 
older  classes. 

The  Relation  of  Analysis  to  Parsing.    (1)  Parsing  is  a  prepa- 


GRAMMAR  233 

ration  for  analysis  in  two  ways :  (a)  It  furnishes  many  necessary 
technical  terms ;  and  {b)  It  introduces  the  pupil  to  the  word- 
individuals  which  are  the  elements  of  sentences.  (2)  Analysis 
reinforces  parsing  in  two  ways :  (a)  It  presupposes  and  em- 
ploys the  ideas  and  language  acquired  in  parsing ;  and  (6)  It 
reveals  properties  of  the  parts  of  speech  which  parsing  alone 
could  not  discover,  as  in  the  case  of  relative  pronouns,  preposi- 
tions, etc.     (See  "  Grammatical  Description.") 

The  Objects  of  Analysis.  The  objects  of  analysis  are  as 
follows  :  (1)  It  is  an  admirable  exercise  in  deductive  thinking, 
and  tends  to  develop  critical  power ;  (2)  It  is  a  fine  trainmg 
in  the  expression  of  ideas  and  thoughts ;  and  (3)  It  equips  for 
the  criticism  and  construction  of  sentences. 

Exercises  in  Syntax.  The  study  of  each  rule  of  relation, 
agreement,  government,  and  arrangement,  should  be  supple- 
mented (1)  by  criticism  of  sentences  in  whose  structure  the 
rule  in  question  or  some  rule  already  studied,  is  violated  ;  and 

(2)  by  original  construction  of  sentences  according  to  some  rule 
or  rules. 

False  Syntax.  (1)  A  collection  of  suitable  sentences  for 
exercise  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax,  is  generally  found 
in  text-books  on  grammar.  The  teacher  may  supplement 
this  collection,  if  he  sees  fit  to  do  so.  The  false  syntax  so 
commonly  found  in  school-rooms  and  on  school-grounds, 
should  be  noted  down  and  criticised.  (2)  It  is  sometimes 
urged  that  such  attention  to  false  syntax  tends  to  fix  the  false 
forms  as  habits  of  the  pupil.  This  is  only  too  true  where 
pupils  are  allowed  to  read,  write,  and  hear  these  sentences 
without  connection.  The  correct  must,  of  course,  be  made  to 
prevail  over  the  incorrect.     This  is  the  law  of  right  habit. 

(3)  There  are  various  forms  of  correcting  false  syntax,  some 
one  of  which  should  be  adhered  to,  though  not  too  mechani- 
cally, in  class  work.  The  subjoined  oral  and  written  correc- 
tion of  the  sentence,  "  Was  it  him  whom  you  saw  ?"  illustrates 


234         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

a  common  and  convenient  method  of  correcting  false  syntax. 
(1)  The  sentence  is  incorrect.  The  objective  pronoun  him  is 
used  as  an  attribute  complement.  In  its  place  the  nomina- 
tive pronoun  he  should  be  used,  according  to  the  rule  that  a 
noun  or  pronoun  used  as  an  attribute  complement  must  be  in 
the  same  case  as  the  subject  to  which  it  refers.  (2)  The  sen- 
tence should  therefore  be,  Was  it  he  whom  you  saw  ? 

The  methods-students  should  be  required  to  write  out  the 
synopsis  of  these  illustrations  and  apply  the  plan  to  other 
cases  of  false  syntax.  Any  other  systematic  plan  will  serve 
the  same  purpose.     (See  text-books  on  grammar.) 

Original  Sentences.  Intermediate  students  should  be  re- 
quired to  construct  sentences  in  conformity  with  studied  rules. 
Early  in  the  course  these  exercises  should  be  developed  into 
brief  compositions  on  various  topics.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  require  students  writing  such  compositions  to 
justify  the  construction  of  every  sentence,  i.e.,  to  show  that  it 
conforms  with  law. 

The  Importance  of  Exercises  in  Syntax.  It  should  ever  be 
kept  in  miud  that  the  practical  objects  of  the  study  of  gram- 
mar are  the  following :  (1)  To  develop  adequate  power,  right 
habits,  and  correct  tastes,  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  and 
to  construct  sentences  deductively ;  and  (2)  To  prepare  the 
student  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences in  literature. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Intermediate  Grammar. 
The  distinctive  features  of  intermediate  methods  come  to  view 
under  the  following  heads :  (1)  Text-Books  of  Intermediate 
Grammar ;  (2)  The  Preparation  of  Lessons ;  and  (3)  The  Reci- 
tation. 

Text-Books  of  Intermediate  Grammar.  (1)  The  first  text- 
book of  intermediate  grammar  should  be  planned  for  obser- 
vation, induction,  and  deduction,  in  such  proportion  as  will  best 
serve  the  purposes  in  hand.    (See  "  The  Objects  of  Intermediate 


GRAMMAR  235 

Grammar.")  Dr.  Lyte's  Grammar  and  Composition,  and  sev- 
eral other  late  grammars,  are  illustrations  of  this  ideal  method. 
The  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  text-books  have  been  too 
deductive  in  plan,  accoimts  at  least  partially  for  the  failures  re- 
corded in  the  history  of  grammar.  (2)  After  about  two  years' 
study  of  a  book  like  Dr.  Lyte's,  a  text  like  Brown's  "  Insti- 
tutes of  English  Grammar,"  whose  plan  is  deductive,  should 
be  taken  up  for  a  year  or  two.  (3)  The  grammar  of  several 
English  classics,  such  as  Gray's  "  Elegy"  and  Pope's  "  Essay 
on  Man,"  together  with  Latin  or  German  grammar,  should  be 
added  to  Brown  in  high  schools  and  Normal  schools,  with  the 
special  purpose  of  cultivating  analytic  power  and  critical  taste. 

Preparation  of  Lessons  in  Intermediate  Gi'ammar.  The 
lesson  having  been  definitely  assigned,  intermediate  pupils  in 
grammar  should  be  required  to  observe,  to  parse  and  analyze, 
and  to  correct  and  construct  sentences,  etc.,  according  to  the  plan 
of  the  lesson.  Some  of  this  work  should  be  prepared  in  writing 
and  submitted  for  inspection.  Parsing  and  analyzing  by  ab- 
breviation, as  indicated,  and  diagrams,  should  constitute  parts 
of  the  student's  preparation.  The  pupil  should  be  expected  to 
be  master  of  the  definitions  and  rules  that  may  be  in  question. 

The  Recitation  in  Intermediate  Grammar.  The  objects  of 
the  recitation  (see  the  Fifth  General  Principle  of  Education) 
are  culture  and  instruction. 

For  the  culture  of  all  the  mental  functions  the  following 
tasks  may  be  assigned  :  (1)  To  state,  explain,  and  illustrate 
definitions  or  rules ;  (2)  To  decline,  conjugate,  or  compare 
words ;  (3)  To  parse  certain  words  of  a  sentence ;  (4)  To  ana- 
lyze a  sentence ;  (5)  To  correct  or  construct  sentences  accord- 
ing to  rule.  This  work  should,  of  course,  be  partly  oral  and 
partly  written,  the  proportion  depending  on  the  nature  of  the 
tasks  and  the  purposes  of  the  teacher. 

(1)  While  part  of  the  grammar  class  is  working  at  the 
board,  the  teacher  must  supervise  the  oral  work,  adding  cor- 


236         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

rections  and  information  wherever  the  right  opportunity 
presents  itself.  (2)  When  the  board-workers  read  what  they 
have  written,  there  will  be  splendid  opportunities  to  make 
corrections  and  to  add  information.  The  task  of  correcting 
board- work  should  be  divided .  between  the  class  and  the 
teacher.  Much  of  the  succ-ess  to  which  the  teacher  hopes  to 
attain  will  depend  on  the  skill  with  which  he  adds  informa- 
tion in  class. 

IV.   HIGHER  GRAMMAR. 

Our  limits  forbid  all  but  a  brief  outline  of  the  work  to  be 
done  in  higher  grammar.  The  following  outline  is  subjoined 
as  a  stimulus  to  teachers  and  special  students. 

The  Objects  of  Higher  Grammar.  The  ends  in  view  in 
higher  grammar  are  as  follows :  (1)  The  attainment  of  such 
scholarship  as  the  merits  of  the  branch  justify ;  (2)  The  prep- 
aration of  students  for  the  comprehension  and  enjoyment  of 
literature  so  far  as  such  comprehension  and  enjoyment  depend 
on  training  in  grammar ;  and  (3)  The  development  of  such 
practical  proficiency  in  grammar  as  may  serve  the  practical 
interests  of  the  various  occupations  and  professions. 

The  Subjects  of  Higher  Grammar.  The  course  of  higher 
grammar  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the  high  school  epoch, 
to  Normal  schools,  and  to  preparatory  schools  of  high  grade. 

Higher  Grammar  of  High  Schools.  To  the  work  already 
mapped  out  for  high  schools,  the  following  tasks  may  be 
added  where  the  circumstances  allow  it :  (1)  A  special  course 
in  the  anomalies  of  English  grammar ;  (2)  A  course  in  the 
correlation  of  grammar  with  rhetoric,  logic,  etc, ;  (3)  A  course 
in  the  grammar  of  the  most  difficult  English  master-pieces ; 
and  (4)  A  course  of  composition  in  which  the  special  object  is 
the  deductive  construction  of  sentences. 

Higher  Grammar  in  Normal  Schools.  The  Normal  school 
should  offer  a  course  of  grammar  equivalent  to  that  mapped 


GRAMMAR  237 

out  for  high  schools.  The  special  stand-point  of  Normal 
schools  requires  such  a  course  for  two  reasons  :  (1)  As  a  prep- 
aration for  the  pedagogics  of  grammar ;  and  (2)  As  an  equip- 
ment in  teaching  grammar.  There  should  be  constant  refer- 
ence to  such  higher  text-books  on  grammar  as  Whitney's,  etc. 
The  history  and  philosophy  of  grammar  should,  of  course,  be 
connected  with  the  pedagogics  of  grammar.  (See  "  The  Nature 
of  Grammar.")  A  course  of  comparative  grammar  is  also 
desirable  for  teachers  and  specialists. 

Higher  Grammar  of  Preparatory  Schools.  The  purposes  of 
preparatory  schools  requires  a  course  in  grammar  equivalent 
to  that  mapped  out  for  high  schools.  (1)  Such  a  course  serves 
as  a  disciplinary  means  in  preparing  for  college ;  and  (2)  It  is 
indispensable  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  philology  and 
foreign  grammar. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Higher  Grammar.  The 
method  employed  in  intermediate  grammar  is  virtually  the 
right  method  for  higher  grammar.  The  higher  phases  of  the 
subject,  the  special  purposes  in  view,  and  the  individuality  of 
the  teacher,  must  determine  the  necessary  adjustments.  The 
pedagogics  of  grammar  is  a  problem  of  psychology  and  econ- 
omy, and  must  obviously  be  studied  from  those  stand-points. 

V.   THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  GRAMMAR. 

To  appreciate  the  importance  of  grammar,  one  must  under- 
stand its  efficiency  as  a  means  of  culture  and  instruction.  The 
following  topics  deserve  special  consideration  :  (1)  The  Culture 
Value  of  Grammar ;  (2)  The  Instruction  Value  of  Grammar ; 
(3)  The  Practical  Value  of  Grammar  ;  and  (4)  The  Training 
of  Teachers  of  Grammar. 

The  Culture  Value  of  Grammar.  The  nature  of  the 
subject  (see  beginning  of  this  chapter)  and  the  necessary 
method  of  instruction  make  grammar  the  possible  means  of 
cultivating  all  the  functions  of  the  intellect,  but  especially  the 


238         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

understanding.  (The  methods- student  should  be  required  to 
prove  this  statement.)  As  the  virtual  study  of  the  structure 
of  thought,  together  with  concomitant  emotion  and  volition,  it 
is  an  admirable  exercise  of  self-consciousness.  But,  studied 
rightly,  grammar  is  more  than  a  discipline  of  the  intellect; 
the  joy  of  inductive  discoveries  and  deductive  uses,  rouses  the 
whole  "  heart"  into  responses ;  and  the  caution,  concentration, 
and  purpose,  so  essential  in  the  right  study  of  grammar,  make 
it  a  most  excellent  discipline  of  the  will.  "  The  Committee  of 
Fifteen"  says :  "  Grammar  demonstrates  its  title  to  the  first 
place  by  its  use  as  a  discipline  in  subtle  analysis,  in  logical 
division  and  classification,  in  the  art  of  questioning,  and  in  the 
mental  accomplishment  of  making  exact  definitions.  Nor  is 
this  an  empty  formal  discipline,  for  its  subject  matter,  lan- 
guage, is  a  product  of  the  reason  of  a  people  not  as  individuals 
but  as  a  social  whole,  and  the  vocabulary  holds  in  its  store  of 
words  the  generalized  experience  of  that  people,  including 
sensuous  observation  and  reflection,  feeling  and  emotion,  in- 
stinct and  volition."  One-sided  training  in  grammar,  how- 
ever, may  have  serious  results.  On  this  point  the  same  com- 
mittee says :  "  Grammar,  rich  as  it  is  in  its  contents,  is  only  a 
formal  discipline  as  respects  the  scientific,  historic,  or  literary 
contents  of  language,  and  is  indifferent  to  them.  A  training 
for  four  or  five  years  in  parsing  and  grammatical  analysis 
practised  on  literary  works  of  art  (Milton,  Shakespeare,  Ten- 
nyson, Scott)  is  a  training  of  the  pupil  into  habits  of  iudiiFer- 
ence  toward  and  neglect  of  the  genius  displayed  in  the  literary 
work  of  art,  and  into  habits  of  impertinent  and  trifling  at- 
tention to  elements  employed  as  material  or  texture,  and  a  cor- 
responding neglect  of  the  structural  form  which  alone  is  the 
work  of  the  artist." 

The  Instruction  Value  of  Grammar.  The  study  of  the 
structure  of  sentences  is  virtually  the  study  of  the  structure  of 
thought,  admittedly  the  most  important  study  of  man.     The 


GRAMMAR  2.^9 

fact  that  thought  cannot  be  isolated  from  emotion  and  voli- 
tion, makes  the  study  of  grammar  the  great  anteroom  of  psy- 
chology proper.  On  this  point  '^  The  Committee  of  Fifteen" 
says :  "  It  shows  the  structure  of  language,  and  the  logical 
forms  of  subject,  predicate,  and  modifier,  thus  revealing  the 
essential  nature  of  thought  itself,  the  most  important  of  all 
objects,  because  it  is  self-object." 

The  Practical  Value  of  Grapimar.  The  practical  advan- 
tages of  grammar  are  as  follows :  (1)  It  offers  a  systematic 
guidance  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  is,  therefore,  of 
inestimable  value  to  spoken  and  to  written  discourse;  (2)  It 
is  the  indispensable  preparation  for  the  study  of  rhetoric,  logic, 
foreign  languages,  and  philology ;  (3)  It  is  impossible  to  com- 
prehend and  appreciate  fully  the  structural  agency  of  litera- 
ture, without  a  thorough  training  in  grammar ;  and  (4)  The 
proper  study  of  grammar  develops  habits  of  mind  which  are 
of  the  greatest  importance  as  practical  equipments. 

The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Grammar.  The  responsi- 
bility of  teachers  of  grammar  must,  of  course,  be  measured  by 
the  importance  of  the  study.  If,  therefore,  grammar  is  as  im- 
portant to  pupils  as  just  explained,  it  is  evident  that  teachers 
of  grammar  need  the  best  possible  training  in  grammar.  This 
training  consists  of  two  items  :  (1)  Training  in  grammar  itself. 
This  training,  as  elsewhere  stated,  is  needed  in  the  art  as  well 
as  in  the  science  of  teaching  grammar.  Without  such  profi- 
ciency, grammar  will  be  distasteful  to  students  and  a  failure  as 
an  educational  instrument.  (2)  Training  in  the  principles  and 
methods  of  teaching  grammar  is  necessary.  Since  this  topic 
was  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter,  it  is  hoped  that  further 
discussion  may  not  be  necessary. 


Z40         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
CHAPTER    VIII. 

ARITHMETIC. 

The  purpose  in  hand  requires  that  in  this  chapter  our  atten- 
tion be  directed  to  (1)  The  Nature  of  Arithmetic ;  and  (2)  In- 
struction in  Arithmetic. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  ARITHMETIC. 

In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  nature  of  arithmetic, 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  following  topics  :  (1)  The  "  Sub- 
ject" of  Arithmetic ;  (2)  The  Psychology  of  Arithmetic  ;  (3) 
The  Definition  of  Arithmetic  ;  and  (4)  The  History  of  Arith- 
metic. 

I.  THE   "SUBJECT"   OF  ARITHMETIC. 

It  is  with  "  numbers"  (how  many),  rather  than  with  the 
nature  and  relations  of  things,  that  arithmetic  has  to  do.  But, 
as  in  drawing,  it  is  rather  the  acts  than  the  lines  in  question  in 
those  acts  that  constitute  the  "  subject"  of  study  (though  both 
together  are  the  subject),  so  in  arithmetic  it  is  rather  the  oper- 
ations than  the  numbers  in  question  in  those  operations  that 
constitute  the  subject  of  arithmetic  (though  both  together  are 
the  subject).  A  complete  description  of  the  "subject"  of 
arithmetic,  therefore,  requires  the  consideration  of  the  follow- 
ing topics  :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Numbers ;  and  (2)  The  Number- 
Operations. 

The  Nature  of  Numbers,  Parts  of  any  kind  which  to- 
gether constitute  a  whole  for  the  mind,  thus  constitute  what  is 
termed  a  Unit.  Any  unit  in  the  conception  of  which  the  mind 
is  unconscious  of  arbitrary  division  is  termed  an  Integral 
Unit.  The  division  of  the  integral  unit  gives  rise  to  the  Frac- 
tional Unit,  as  one-third.     A  unit  or  collection  of  units  is 


AEITHMETIC  241 

termed  a  Number,  as  one,  one-half,  two.  With  reference  to 
units,  there  are  three  species  of  numbers :  (1)  The  integral 
unit  or  a  collection  of  integral  units  is  termed  an  Integral 
Number,  as  one,  nine.  (2)  The  fractional  unit  or  a  collection 
of  fractional  units  is  termed  a  Fractional  Number,  or  Frac- 
tion, as  one-half,  one-tenth.  There  are  three  familiar  species 
of  Fractious,  (a)  Common  Fractions,  (6)  Decimal  Fractions, 
and  (c)  Duodecimal  Fractions.  Simple  reference  to  these  spe- 
cies of  fractions  must  suffice  at  this  point.  (3)  When  the 
integral  unit  is  a  conventional  unit  of  measure,  as  one-pound, 
the  corresponding  numbers,  as  one  pound,  one  half  pound, 
three  pounds,  are  termed  Denominate  Numbers. 

An  Important  Distinction.  It  is  important  to  distinguish 
the  concepts  denoted  by  the  term  "  number"  and  "  numbers." 
The  concept  "  number"  is  general ;  the  concept  "  numbers"  is 
particular  in  its  application.  Numbers  (a  number,  the  num- 
bers) are  either  definitely  or  indefinitely  particular.  It  is  only 
with  number  in  the  definite  sense  of  "just  how  many"  that  we 
have  to  do  in  arithmetic. 

The  Number-Operations.  The  quantitative  character  of 
numbers  gives  rise  to  three  number-operations,  (1)  Synthesis, 
(2)  Analysis,  and  (3)  Comparison. 

The  Synthesis  of  Numbers.  The  possible  modes  of  synthesis 
of  numbers,  as  determined  by  the  nature  of  number,  are  as 
follows :  (1 )  To  fix  the  mind  on  each  object  of  a  collection,  to 
ascertain  the  number  of  objects  ;  (2)  To  fix  the  mind  on  given 
numbers  in  succession,  to  ascertain  the  sum ;  and  (3)  To  take 
a  number  a  number  of  times,  to  ascertain  the  product.  These 
modes  of  synthesis  are  termed  respectively  (1)  Counting,  (2) 
Addition,  and  (3)  Multiplication.  Counting  is  the  most  ele- 
mentary process  of  addition,  and  multiplication  is  addition  by 
uniform  repetition.  There  are  two  distinct  varieties  of  mul- 
tiplication :  (1)  A  number  of  numbers  may  be  used  as  factors, 
and  the  product  ascertained.     This  process  is  termed  Compo- 

16 


242         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sition.  (2)  A  number  may  be  used  a  number  of  times  as  a 
multiplier^  and  the  product  ascertained.  This  j)rocess  is  termed 
Involution. 

The  Analysis  of  Numbers.  The  possible  modes  of  analysis 
of  numbers,  as  determined  by  the  nature  of  number,  are  as 
follows :  (1)  To  take  a  number  from  a  number,  to  ascertain  the 
difference ;  and  (2)  To  take  the  same  number  away  as  often  as 
possible,  to  ascertain  the  number  of  times  one  number  contains 
another.  These  modes  of  analysis  are  termed  respectively  (1) 
Subtraction,  and  (2)  Division.  Division  is  subtraction  by  uni- 
form diminution,  and  there  are  two  distinct  varieties :  {a)  A 
composite  number  may  be  subjected  to  successive  divisions,  the 
numbers  of  which  it  is  composed  being  thus  ascertained.  This 
process  is  termed  Factoring.  (6)  A  number  may  be  resolved 
into  the  equal  factors  of  which  it  is  the  product.  This  process 
is  termed  Evolution. 

The  Comparison  of  Numbers.  The  possible  modes  of  com- 
paring numbers,  as  determined  by  the  relation  of  numbers,  are 
as  follows :  (1)  The  comparison  of  two  equivalent  numerical 
quantities ;  (2)  The  comparison  of  two  unequal  numbers ;  and 
(3)  The  comparison  of  two  equal  relations  of  numbers.  The 
equations  which  express  these  three  modes  of  comparison  are 
termed  respectively  (1)  Simple  Equation,  (2)  Eatio,  and  (3) 
Proportion.  The  ends  in  view  are  respectively,  (1)  To  trans- 
form any  numerical  quantity  into  a  more  desirable  form,  as 
2x3  =  6;  (2)  To  measure  the  relation  of  unequal  numerical 
quantities,  as  12:15  =  1-;  and  (3)  To  complete  one  ratio  by 
means  of  another,  as  6  :  6  =:  1  :  4.  These  equations,  as  the 
thoughtful  reader  will  see,  are  really  the  thought-processes  in 
the  various  modes  of  synthesis  and  analysis  just  described  in 
the  text.  Indeed,  all  the  judgments  of  arithmetical  processes 
fall  into  the  form  of  equations. 

The  Language  of  the  Number- Operations.  For  various 
reasons  it  is  as  important  to  express  number-concepts  and 


ARITHMETIC  243 

number-operations  truthfully,  as  it  is  to  describe  objects  and 
events.  In  order  to  carry  on,  as  well  as  to  express  and  record 
the  number- operations,  a  language  sui  generis  is  requisite. 
The  complexity  of  many  number-concepts  and  number-opera- 
tions requires  a  language  in  which  the  elements  are  few  and 
their  capactity  for  composition  as  great  as  possible.  The  most 
remarkable  adaptation  to  these  requirements  is  the  Arabic  sys- 
tem of  numeration  and  notation.  The  Arabic  figures  (1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0),  and  various  sign  supplements,  are  few 
enough  to  satisfy  any  critic.  The  method  of  combining  these 
characters  and  giving  them  value  according  to  the  place  which 
they  occupy  toward  the  right  or  left,  each  figure  being  worth  ten 
times  as  much  every  place  toward  the  left,  is  one  of  remarkable 
j)ower.  The  value  of  the  method  is  increased  by  the  simple 
system  of  grouping  the  places  and  naming  the  groups.  The 
Roman  notation,  as  any  one  can  understand  who  will  take  the 
time  to  think  about  it,  is  far  inferior  to  the  Arabic  system, 
and,  except  as  a  means  in  expressing  diiferences  in  emphasis, 
has  become  almost  obsolete.  Only  one  other  system,  the  pro- 
posed duodecimal  notation,  in  which  two  additional  characters 
are  employed,  and  in  which  each  figure  toward  the  left  is 
worth  twelve  times  as  much  as  if  it  stood  a  place  further 
toward  the  right,  is  superior  to  the  Arabic,  or  decimal  system. 
It  is  superior  to  the  Arabic  system  in  its  greater  capacity  to 
express  common  fractions  in  few  figures.  But,  whatever  may 
be  said  about  the  numeration  and  notation,  i.e.,  about  speak- 
ing, writing,  and  reading  numbers,  this  is  obvious,  that  numer- 
ation and  notation,  as  a  sui  generis  and  necessary  means  in 
number-operation,  must  be  made  the  subject  of  special  study. 
TTie  Subject  of  Arithmetic.  (1)  From  the  foregoing  consid- 
erations it  appears  that  the  properties  and  relations  of  num- 
bers, together  with  the  number-operations  (synthesis,  analysis, 
and  comparison)  and  the  language-means,  are  the  "  sul)ject" 
of  arithmetic.     (2)  The  concrete  applications  of  the  number- 


244         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

operations,  as  well  as  many  other  problems  found  in  our  arith- 
metics, belong  essentially  to  the  domain  of  logic.  Indeed,  all 
problems  are  logical  exercises.  In  other  words,  problems  are 
statements  of  conditions,  or  premises,  and  the  worker  is  re- 
quired to  construct  the  syllogism  or  series  of  syllogisms,  by 
means  of  which  he  can  obtain  the  conclusion.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  remembered  that,  while  these  logical  processes  require 
the  services  of  arithmetic,  they  are  not  in  the  technical  sense 
the  "  subject"  of  arithmetic, 

II.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ARITHMETIC. 

Three  things  must  be  included  in  our  present  conception  of 
arithmetic:  (1)  A  well-defined  system  of  operations;  (2)  An 
organic  body  of  Principles  ;  and  (3)  The  logical  adjustment 
of  arithmetic  to  practical  and  theoretical  spheres.  The  mental 
steps  in  the  development  of  arithmetic  are  respectively :  (1) 
Observation,  (2)  Induction,  and  (3)  Deduction. 

Observation  in  Arithmetic.  The  observation  of  numbers 
begins  with  the  conception  (see  chapter  on  Mental  Activity)  of 
number  as  quantity.  The  concept  of  number  as  quantity  im- 
plies the  possibility  of  synthesis,  analysis,  and  comparison.  It 
is  assumed  that,  as  a  means  in  the  conception  of  particular  num- 
bers, these  processes,  at  least  in  their  simplest  modes,  are  spon- 
taneous in  all  minds.  When  the  mind  matures  it  observes 
variations  in  the  elementary  processes  of  synthesis,  analysis, 
and  comparison,  or  subjects  them  voluntarily  to  experiments 
in  which  the  conditions  are  constantly  varied.  Some  of  these 
variations  are  doubtless  accidental ;  but,  whether  accidental  or 
intentional,  it  is  through  them  that  all  the  species  of  synthesis, 
analysis,  and  comparison  of  numbers  are  discovered.  This 
necessary  genesis  of  the  number-concepts  determines  both  the 
method  and  course  of  instruction  in  these  concepts. 

Induction  in  Arithmetic.  Believing  that  things  are  sub- 
ject to  law,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  laws  is  advantageous  in 


AEITHMETIC  245 

life,  the  observer  commonly  repeats  his  observations  on  num- 
bers in  order  to  discover  the  laws  (general  truths).  Four  spe- 
cies of  such  general  truths  may  thus  be  discovered  :  (1)  Laws 
to  which,  as  determined  by  the  nature  of  number,  there  can 
obviously  be  no  exceptions,  and  which  are  commonly  termed 
Axioms,  as  "  The  whole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts"  ;  (2) 
Laws  to  which,  as  contained  in  axioms,  there  can  obviously 
be  no  exceptions,  and  which  are  commonly  termed  Principles, 
as  "  Multiplying  the  denominator  or  dividing  the  numerator 
of  a  fraction  by  any  number,  divides  the  fraction  by  that 
number"  ;  (3)  Laws  to  which,  since  they  are  not  obvious  con- 
tents of  axioms,  there  may  be  exceptions,  and  which  are  com- 
monly termed  Theorems,  as  »^  +  a;-f-41=a  Prime  Number, 
ov{x  -Yy)  {x  —  y)=oi?  —  y^ ;  and  (4)  Laws  to  which,  as  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  it  is  convenient  to  conform  in  perform- 
ing number- operations,  and  which  are  commonly  termed  Rules, 
as  "  Invert  the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in  multiplication." 
Though  many  general  truths  of  arithmetic  have  been  discov- 
ered by  induction,  as  just  explained,  all  of  them  except  axioms, 
and  possibly  these,  too,  can  be  obtained  by  deduction.  The 
latter  method  requires  greater  maturity  of  mind,  and  there- 
fore belongs  as  a  task  to  higher  courses  in  arithmetic. 

Deduction  in  Arithmetic.  (1)  Induction  in  the  larger 
sense,  the  sense  in  which  it  is  taken  in  the  preceding  pages  on 
arithmetic,  implies  deduction  in  its  narrow  sense,  as  means  by 
which  to  verify  the  hypotheses  that  prompt  observers  to  repeat 
their  observations.  If,  for  instance,  it  be  found  that  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  circle  is  equal  to  its  diameter  multiplied  by 
3.1416  (particular  truth),  it  may  be  supposed  that  such  will 
be  the  case  with  all  circles ;  but  this  hypothesis  must  be  veri- 
fied by  satisfactory  experiments.  Each  experiment  begins 
with  the  assumption  that  the  hypothesis  is  a  general  truth, 
and  is  therefore  a  deduction  in  the  narrow  sense.  If  all  these 
deductions  confirm  the  hypothesis,  the  induction  is  complete, 


246         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

and  may  be  expressed  as  follows  :  (a)  The  multiplication  of 
this  diameter  by  3.1416  gave  the  circumference  of  this  circle; 
(6)  The  deductive  experiments  represent  all  possibilities ;  there- 
fore, (c)  The  muliplication  of  the  diameter  by  3.1416  always 
gives  the  circumference  of  a  circle  (a  separate  general  truth  of 
complete  Induction).  The  deductions  involved  in  complete 
induction  are  generally  sub-conscious  processes  ;  but  they  are 
nevertheless  ahvays  present.  (2)  Having  discovered  general 
truths  in  arithmetic,  the  student  may  derive  less  general  truths 
from  these,  and  solve  problems  as  particular  cases.  The  pos- 
sibility of  solving  problems  as  examples  of  a  class,  justifies 
the  hard  labor  involved  in  complete  induction  and  constitutes 
the  practical  argument  in  favor  of  arithmetic  as  a  branch  of 
study  in  our  schools. 

The  Definition  of  Arithmetic.  The  method  of  study  just  de- 
scribed, together  with  a  systematic  statement  of  truths,  consti- 
tutes science.  Arithmetic  is  therefore  a  science ;  and,  since  its 
subject  is  "  numbers,"  it  is  correctly  defined  as  the  science  of 
numbers.  The  word  numbers  as  a  term  in  this  definition 
must,  however,  be  understood  to  include  the  number-opera- 
tions and  the  language  of  numbers  and  number-operations, 
since  all  these  together  constitute  the  "  subject"  of  the  science. 
And  since  one  important  end  in  view  in  the  study  of  arith- 
metic is  the  attainment  of  skill  in  performing  the  number- 
operations,  it  is  practically  correct  to  define  arithmetic  in  the 
terms  of  our  authors  as  "  The  science  of  numbers  and  the  art 
of  computing  with  them." 

The  History  of  Arithmetic.  A  complete  treatment  of  this 
subject  requires  reference  to  the  following  points  :  (1)  The  his- 
tory of  the  various  number-processes ;  (2)  The  history  of  nu- 
meration and  notation ;  (3)  The  history  of  the  discovery  of 
general  truths  of  arithmetic ;  (4)  The  history  of  the  services 
of  arithmetic  in  practical  and  theoretical  spheres  ;  and  (5)  The 
history  of  the  pioneers  and  masters  of  arithmetic.    A  complete 


AEITHMETIC  247 

consideration  of  these  topics  would  require  too  much  space  for 
our  present  limits,  and  an  abridged  treatment  would  be  un- 
satisfactory. A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  arithmetic  is, 
however,  not  only  interesting  to  thoughtful  students,  but  of 
great  importance  to  teachers  of  arithmetic.  The  history  of 
arithmetic  prepares  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  to  appreciate 
arithmetic,  and  therefore  makes  it  more  likely  that  earnest 
work  will  be  done  in  teaching  arithmetic.  Accordingly, 
school  teachers  are  respectfully  referred  to  such  helpful  works 
as  (1)  "The  Philosophy  of  Arithmetic,"  by  Dr.  Edward 
Brooks;    (2)    "The   History   of  Mathematics,"  by  Florian 

Cajori. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  ARITHMETIC. 

The  nature  of  arithmetic  makes  inquiry  into  the  following 
subjects  a  necessity  for  teachers  of  arithmetic  :  (1)  The  Courses 
of  Instruction  in  Arithmetic;  (2)  The  Ends  in  View;  (3) 
The  Methods  of  Instruction;  (4)  Written  Arithmetic;  (5) 
Mental  Arithmetic ;  and  (6)  The  Importance  of  Arithmetic. 

THE  COURSES  OF  AEITHMETIC. 

The  courses  of  instruction  in  arithmetic,  as  in  other  branches, 
are  determined  by  at  least  three  important  factors :  (1)  The 
evolution  of  arithmetic ;  (2)  The  pupil's  possible  progress ; 
and  (3)  The  needs  of  life  and  science. 

The  Evolution  of  Arithmetic.  Three  degrees  of  difficulty 
are  distinguishable  in  the  study  of  arithmetic :  (1)  The  stage 
of  obvious  relations,  when  the  numbers  in  question  do  not  pass 
perception,  and  required  operations,  as  well  as  the  required 
thoughts,  are  simple ;  (2)  The  stage  of  remoter  relations,  when 
the  numbers  in  question  require  imagination  as  a  supplement 
to  perception,  and  the  required  operations,  or  their  applications 
to  life  and  science,  are  complex  ;  and  (3)  The  stage  of  remotest 
relations,  when  the  numbers  in  question  pass  imagination,  and 
the  required  operations,  or  their  apj)lications  to  life  and  science, 


248         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

are  very  complex.  These  three  degrees  of  difficulty  must  be 
respected.     (See  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Pupil's  Progress.  Psychology  discovers  three  stages 
of  possibility  in  study  :  (1)  The  stage  of  dependence,  when  con- 
crete thinking  predominates  very  much  over  abstract  thinking, 
and  imitation  (Principles  of  Knowledge)  is  the  rule ;  (2)  The 
stage  of  transition,  when  abstract  thinking  is  closely  coordinate 
with  concrete  thinking,  and  the  pupil  depends  more  upon  his 
own  resources ;  and  (3)  The  stage  of  independence,  when  ab- 
stract thinking  predominates  over  concrete  thinking,  and  the 
pupil  depends  virtually  upon  his  own  resources.  These  stages 
of  possibility  must  be  respected.  (See  the  First,  Second,  and 
Third  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Needs  of  Life  and  Science.  The  needs  of  life  and 
science  cannot  aifect  the  order  in  which  the  subjects  and  phases 
of  arithmetic  should  follow  each  other,  since  these  are  abso- 
lutely a  matter  of  relation  between  the  subject  and  the  pupil ; 
but  these  needs,  unless  indeed  schools  owe  nothing  to  life,  and 
science  can  shift  without  arithmetic,  must  be  recognized  in  de- 
termining how  much  arithmetic  a  pupil  should  study.  (See 
the  Fifth  General  Principle  of  Education,  and  the  Fourth 
Principle  of  Instruction.) 

The  Necessary  Courses  of  Arithmetic.  If  the  matter  of 
arithmetic  must  be  adjusted  to  the  stages  of  the  pupil's  possi- 
bility (First  Principle  of  Instruction)  and  to  his  lot  (Fourth 
Principle  of  Instruction),  there  must  evidently  be  the  follow- 
ing courses  of  instruction :  (1)  The  Elementary  Course ;  (2) 
The  Intermediate  Course ;  and  (3)  The  Higher  Course. 

I.  ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC. 

The  distinctive  features  of  instruction  in  elementary  arith- 
metic arrange  themselves  under  three  heads  :  (1)  The  Ends  in 
View ;  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction ;  and  (3)  The  Order  of 
Subjects. 


AEITHMETIC  249 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Elementary  Arithmetic.  The 
right  ends  (see  Principles  of  Education)  in  view  in  elementary 
arithmetic  are  as  follows  :  (1)  To  build  such  number-concepts 
(integral;  fractional,  and  denominate),  and  such  concepts  of 
operation  (synthesis,  analysis,  and  comparison)  as  may  be  pos- 
sible by  way  of  perceptive  experiments,  and  such  number-lan- 
guage (speaking,  writing,  and  reading)  as  may  be  necessary  in 
these  tasks ;  (2)  To  train  pupils  to  perform  the  "  four"  opera- 
tions (addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division)  as 
intelligently,  accurately,  quickly,  and  neatly,  as  possible,  first 
with  integers,  then  with  fractions,  and  finally  with  denominate 
numbers ;  (3)  To  develop  the  power  to  work  such  problems  as 
arise  in  the  young  pupil's  life,  and  such  disciplinary  exercises 
as  good  sense  may  dictate ;  and  (4)  To  develop  some  ability 
in  describing  numbers  and  operations,  and  in  explaining  obvious 
relations. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Elementary  Arithmetic. 
The  logical  genesis  of  knowledge  (see  "  Principles  of  Knowl- 
edge," and  "  The  Psychology  of  Arithmetic")  determines  the 
method  of  instruction.  (See  Fifth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 
Therefore  (see  Tenth  Principle  of  Instruction)  the  tasks  of  in- 
struction in  elementary  arithmetic  (see  preceding  paragraph) 
can  be  accomplished  only  by  the  "development"  method, 
whose  conspicuous  features,  as  explained,  are  (1)  Observation, 
(2)  Induction,  and  (3)  Deduction. 

Teaching  the  Number- Concepts.  The  events  in  the  practical 
development  of  the  number-concepts  are  perception,  concep- 
tion, expression,  and  recognition.  (1)  Inasmuch  as  numbers 
must  at  first  be  thought  as  the  "  how  many"  of  things,  things 
are  the  indispensable  means  in  lessons  on  numbers.  The  pupil 
must  be  required  to  observe  the  number  (how  many)  in  any 
convenient  collection  of  objects,  such  as  beans,  splints,  strokes, 
etc.  The  attention  of  the  pupil  in  these  observations  must  be 
kept  upon  the  number  rather  than  upon  the  nature  and  rela- 


250         PRINCIPLES   AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion  of  the  objects  observed.  The  required  attention  is  more 
complex  than  it  seems ;  it  really  amounts  to  perception,  direct 
comparison,  and  abstraction.  (2)  The  successive  abstractions 
in  this  process  of  attention,  supply  the  pupil's  mind  with  the 
particulars  out  of  which  he  spontaneously  builds  his  concept 
of  the  number  in  question,  as  one,  three,  five.  (3)  The  name 
of  the  number  must,  of  course,  be  associated  with  the  idea  of 
the  number  to  be  taught,  as  "  five."  (See  First  Principle  of 
Knowledge.)  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  write  and  read, 
as  well  as  speak,  the  name  of  the  number  which  he  is  learning, 
although,  in  order  to  keep  the  pupil  from  thinking  simply  signs 
instead  of  numbers,  the  writing  and  reading  ought  to  be  omitted 
the  first  few  weeks.  (4)  The  pupil  really  defines  a  number  to 
himself  in  his  conception  of  the  number,  formed,  as  just  ex- 
plained, by  counting  objects ;  but  such  conceptions  should  be 
reinforced  by  many  recognitions  of  the  number  learned.  It  is 
by  means  of  such  deductive  recognitions  that  the  pupil's  induc- 
tions (conceptions)  become  his  permanent  possessions. 

Teaching  the  Concepts  of  Operation.  When  the  pupil  knows 
of  "  how  many"  a  number,  as  "  four,"  consists ;  that  is,  when 
he  has  learned  the  number  as  a  "  quantity,"  he  should  be  led 
to  see  the  possible  arrangements  of  the  "  units"  of  which  the 
quantity  is  constituted.  In  other  words,  objects  must  be  so 
placed,  let  us  say  on  a  table,  that  the  pupil  comprehends  the 
followina:  abstract  truths  in  the  concrete  : 

4  =  1  +  1  +  1+1  4  —  1  =  3  4  =  1x4            4h-1  =  4 

4^2  +  1  +  1  4  —  2  =  2  4  =  2x2            4--2  =  2 

4=3+1  4—3=1 

4  =  2  +  2  4  —  4  =  0 

As  soon  as  possible  (see  Principles  of  Instruction)  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  record  his  experiments  by  means  of 
signs  and  figures,  as  in  the  text.  The  end  in  view  in  all  such 
elementary  exercises  (perceptive  experiments)  is  to  teach  the 


ARITHMETIC  251 

concepts  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division. 
The  systematic  treatment  of  the  numbers  from  one  to  a  hun- 
dred, and  even  beyond  that,  in  the  way  just  described,  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  Grube  Method,"  in  honor  of  the  cele- 
brated German  who  first  developed  these  exercises  into  a  sys- 
tem. (See  Professor  Seeley's  excellent  adaptation  of  the  Grube 
system  to  American  schools.) 

Teaching  Number-Language.  The  Arabic  number- language 
(see  page  243)  is  composite.  Accordingly  (see  the  Second 
Principle  of  Instruction),  the  method  of  teaching  it  is  by 
"  synthesis  of  elements."  The  process  of  teaching  number- 
language  should  begin,  as  explained  in  the  paragraph  on 
"  Teaching  the  Number-Concepts,"  with  the  oral  names  of 
the  numbers,  as  one,  two,  three,  etc.  These  names  should 
also  be  written  and  read  as  soon  as  these  abstract  exercises  are 
appropriate.  When  the  pupil  has  learned  to  speak,  write,  and 
read  the  elements  of  the  Arabic  number-language,  the  follow- 
ing exercises  should  be  taken  up  in  order :  (1)  Ten  and  one, 
ten  and  two,  etc.,  up  to  ten  and  nine,  should  be  illustrated  by 
means  of  objects.  The  names  eleven,  twelve,  etc.,  up  to 
twenty,  must,  of  course,  be  added  by  associating  them  with 
the  names  ten  and  one,  ten  and  two,  etc.  (2)  The  pupil 
should  next  be  taught  to  count  two  tens  and  one,  etc.,  up  to 
nine  tens  and  nine,  the  names  twenty-one,  etc.,  being  added 
as  before.  (3)  The  numbers  from  one  hundred  to  one  thou- 
sand may  be  illustrated  by  means  of  bundles  of  splints,  etc. 
(4)  At  any  time  after  the  pupil  has  learned  to  write  nine,  he 
may  be  taught  to  write  ten  and  two,  ten  and  one,  and  then 
ten,  to  help  him  see  the  use  of  zero.  Thus:  1  |  2,  1  |  1,  1  |  0. 
This  lesson  on  "  place- value"  is  the  "  key"  lesson  to  the  Arabic 
system  of  notation  and  numeration ;  it  is  the  key  lesson  to  all 
the  higher  number-groups.  (5)  When  the  pupil  has  learned 
to  write  as  far  as  nine  tens  and  nine,  he  must  be  tauffht  to 
call  the  collection  of  ten  tens  one  hundred,  writing  it  1  |  0  |  0. 


252 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


The  terms  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  should  now  be  introduced, 
the  "  numeration"  at  first  always  preceding  the  "  reading"  of 
the  number.  (6)  When  the  pupil  has  learned  to  write,  numer- 
ate, and  read  as  far  as  nine  hundred  ninety-nine,  he  must  be 
taught  to  call  the  collection  of  ten  hundred  one  thousand, 
writing  it  1  |  0  j  0  |  0.  (7)  Finally,  the  pupil  must  be  taught 
that  higher  groups,  as  millions,  billions,  etc.,  are  formed  by 
multiplying  the  lower  group  by  one  hundred  instead  of  ten. 
This  concept  can  be  taught  most  conveniently  by  the  follow- 
ing arrangement,  the  same  figures  being  used  for  all  groups  at 
first  in  order  to  simplify  the  conception.     Thus  : 


Millions, 

Thousands, 

ll       t        u 
1       2       5 

h       t       u 
1       2       5 

h       t       u 
1       2      5 

Of  course,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  while  these  les- 
sons on  number-language  are  being  given,  the  Grube  exer- 
cises are  to  be  continued  and  the  "  four"  operations  devel- 
oped into  formal  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division. 

Teaching  the  Number -Operations.  The  pupil  is  ready  (see 
First  and  Second  Principles  of  Instruction)  for  lessons  in 
formal  addition  and  subtraction  as  soon  as  he  has  made  a  fair 
start  in  the  Grube  exercises.  It  is  better  to  teach  addition 
and  subtraction  together,  the  two  being  natural  complements, 
and  easily  illustrated  as  complements.  The  pupil  is  ready  for 
lessons  in  formal  multiplication  and  division  as  soon  as  he 
knows  the  required  "  tables."  It  is  better  to  teach  multipli- 
cation and  division  together,  not  only  because  they  are  natural 
complements,  but  also  because  the  same  "  tables"  can  be  used. 
The  "  four"  operations  and  the  construction  of  the  "  tables," 
must  be  made  the  subject  of  as  many  observations  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  pupil's  understanding  and  memory.    (1)  The 


ARITHMETIC  253 

teacher  must  work  illustrative  examples,  the  pupil  observing 
and  remembering  the  process,  thus  reasoning  from  the  partic- 
ular cases  to  the  "  rule."  (2)  The  pupil  must  be  made  to  un- 
derstand that  he  "carries,"  "borrows,"  passes  "toward  the 
left,"  or  "toward  the  right,"  in  the  "four"  operations,  be- 
cause he  can  thus  utilize  the  "  place  value"  of  the  figures  in 
his  notations.  This  process  of  reasoning  from  the  first  uses 
of  "place"  in  notation  to  others,  and  still  others,  even  to  its 
general  use,  is  not  as  difficult  an  induction  for  pupils  as  is 
sometimes  supposed,  provided  that  the  new  cases  are  properly 
graded  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  Objective  illus- 
trations are,  of  course,  necessary  in  the  earliest  explanations, 
(3)  Many  exercises  (deductions)  must  be  added  in  order  to 
reinforce  the  pupil's  inductions,  to  make  them  permanent  pos- 
sessions, and  to  develop  speed,  as  well  as  accuracy  and  neat- 
ness in  performing  the  operations.  (4)  Common  fractions, 
decimal  fractions,  and  denominate  numbers,  should  be  gradu- 
ally introduced  into  the  "  four"  operations,  but  the  tasks  must 
be  carefully  graded.  (5)  The  pupil's  impressions  will  be  deep- 
ened and  corrected  very  effectively  by  the  effort  to  describe 
and  explain,  while  at  the  same  time  there  will  be  a  great  gain 
for  the  pupil's  language. 

Teaching  Exercises  and  Problems.  The  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  Avork  exercises  in  which  the  "  four"  operations,  or  as 
many  of  them  as  are  known  to  the  pupil,  are  so  combined  as 
to  tax  and  thus  develop  his  thinking  powers.  (See  the  First, 
Second,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Principles  of  Instruction.)  In 
the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reason,  as  well  as  in  the 
interests  of  practical  life,  concrete  problems  should  be  con- 
structed for  the  pupil.  The  teacher  should  not  be  too  ready 
to  assist  his  pupils  in  such  exercises  and  problems  ;  he  should, 
however,  give  them  such  directions,  ask  such  questions,  and 
prepare  such  paths,  as  will  enable  them  to  help  themselves. 
(See  the  Eighth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 


254         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Means  in  Elementary  Arithmetic.  The  course  in  ele- 
mentary arithmetic  should  extend  through  the  pupil's  first  five 
years.  (See  the  First,  Third,  and  Fourth  Principles  of  Instruc- 
tion.) (1)  So  far  as  the  understanding  of  the  child  is  in  ques- 
tion, it  matters  very  little  whether  books  be  used  or  not,  since 
written  language  will  be  used  in  board-assignments  as  well  as 
in  books.  Probably  it  would  be  best  for  several  reasons  to 
use  no  books  the  first  two  years,  great  care  being  taken  in 
that  event  to  write  the  questions  very  plainly  in  a  conspicuous 
place,  so  as  to  save  the  pupil's  eyes.  An  appropriate  book 
should  be  used  after  the  second  year,  both  as  a  matter  of  econ- 
omy in  time,  and  as  an  instrument  in  the  educational  transi- 
tion of  the  child.  As  a  moral  precaution,  the  work  required 
of  elementary  arithmetic  pupils  between  recitations  should  be 
done  in  school  hours  and  under  the  teacher's  eye.  (2)  The 
questions  should  often  be  recited  without  resort  to  figures  in 
the  performance  of  the  necessary  number-operations,  and  in 
complete  sentences  ;  but  generally  the  reasoning  process  should 
be  expressed  only  in  outline  by  means  of  figures  and  such 
supplementary  words  as  may  be  necessary.  In  such  a  com- 
promise between  "  mental"  and  "  written"  arithmetic,  the 
former  will  serve  as  a  special  discipline  in  analysis  and 
language ;  the  latter  will  save  time  and  train  in  practical 
speed. 

The  Order  of  Subjects  in  Elementary  Arithmetic.  The 
submitted  list  of  subjects  is  a  catalogue  of  things  to  be  taught 
in  elementary  arithmetic,  and  somewhat  in  order:  (1)  The 
concepts  of  the  integral  numbers,  togetlier  with  counting, 
Grube  exercises,  and  the  necessary  number-language.  (2)  The 
''  four"  operations  with  integral  numbers,  together  with  the 
necessary  "tables,"  number-language,  Grube  exercises,  and 
concrete  problems.  (3)  The  concepts  of  the  comuion  fractions, 
together  with  the  corresponding  Grube  exercises,  progress  in 
the  four  operations  with  integers,  progress  in  notation  and 


ARITHMETIC  255 

numeration,  progress  in  concrete  problems,  and  progress  in  ex- 
planation. (4)  The  rules  of  the  four  operations  with  common 
fractions,  together  with  "  speed"  drills  and  progress  in  former 
subjects.  (5)  The  concepts  of  the  decimal  fractions,  together 
with  the  rules  of  the  four  decimal  operations  and  progress 
in  all  preceding  subjects.  (6)  The  concepts  of  the  simpler 
denominate  numbers,  together  with  the  four  operations,  the 
necessary  tables,  and  progress  in  all  preceding  subjects. 

Illustrative  Lessons  in  Elementary  Arithmetic.  The 
subjoined  lessons  are  designed  to  be  illustrations  of  the  devel- 
opment method  (observation,  induction,  and  deduction)  in  ele- 
mentary arithmetic. 

The  Concept  "  Five."  Teacher.  How  many  grains  of 
corn  have  I  just  now  placed  before  you,  James  ?  James.  Four 
and  one.  T.  Yes ;  four  and  one,  or  five.  Please  pick  up  five 
books  and  take  them  to  Jane.  Count  five  cracks  in  the  floor, 
touching  each  place  with  this  pointer.  Which  of  the  cracks 
is  five,  Miriam?  Miriam.  It  takes  all  of  them  together  to 
make  five.  T.  Please  arrange  these  splints  in  fives,  like  this, 
#,=gf,etc. 

The  Grube  Treatment  of  "  Pour."  Teacher.  What  have 
I  done,  Henry  ?  Henry.  You  placed  four  blocks  on  the  table. 
T.  Please  arrange  them  in  a  row,  placing  them  a  little  way 
apart  from  each  other.  What  can  you  now  say  about  the 
four  blocks  ?  H.  Four  blocks  are  one  and  one  and  one  and 
one  block.  T.  Please  record  what  you  have  found  out. 
(Henry  writes  on  the  board,  as  he  has  been  instructed,  4  =  1 
+  1  +  1  +  1.)  T.  Move  the  first  block  against  the  second. 
What  can  you  now  say  about  the  four  blocks,  Annie  ?  Aniiie. 
Four  blocks  are  two  blocks  and  one  block  and  one  block.  T. 
Please  record  right  below  our  first  record.  Now  arrange  them 
in  another  way,  James.  James.  This  way  four  is  two  and 
two,  but  if  I  place  them  thus,  four  is  three  and  one.  T.  Very 
well ;  now  record  your  facts.     The  blocks,  as  you  see,  are  all 


256         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

together.  Please  take  one  away,  James,  and  tell  what  is  true 
of  four.  James.  Four  less  one  is  three.  T.  Dodd,  you  may 
keep  the  record  at  the  board  to  the  end  of  the  recitation. 
James,  put  back  the  block  which  you  took.  Now,  Mabel, 
give  me  two  blocks,  and  tell  what  is  true  of  four  and  the 
two.  Mahel.  Four  less  two  is  two.  T.  Take  three  away. 
Four.  Yes,  Dodd,  your  record  is  correct.  Now  put  the 
blocks  right  in  front  of  James  and  close  together.  How 
many  times — I  mean  how  often — can  you  touch  a  different 
block  until  you  have  touched  them  all,  James  ?  James.  I  can 
touch  four  times.  T.  Then  how  many  times  one  is  four, 
James?  James.  Four  is  four  times  one.  T.  How  many 
times  can  you  touch  all  the  blocks  at  once,  James  ?  James. 
Only  one  time.  T.  Four  is  how  many  times  four  ?  James. 
Four  is  one  time  four.  T.  Put  the  blocks  together  again. 
Mabel,  please  take  two  blocks  from  the  table.  How  often  can 
you  take  two  from  four  ?  Mabel.  I  can  do  it  two  times.  T. 
Then  how  many  times  does  four  allow  you  to  take  two  away  ? 
Mahel.  Two  times.  T.  Yes ;  four  contains  two  just  two  times. 
Now  how  many  times  does  four  "contain"  four?  Mabel. 
Four  contains  four  only  one  time.  T.  How  many  times  does 
four  contain  onef  M.  Four  contains  one  four  times.  T. 
Please  take  these  splints,  each  of  you  only  four,  and  arrange 
them  as  we  arranged  the  blocks.  Write  the  records  on  your 
slate,  and  let  me  see  them  when  you  recite  again.  (By  and  by, 
when  the  pupils  know  the  meanings  of  the  signs  +,  — ,  X, 
-^,  very  well,  they  should  be  requested  to  think  all  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  number,  and  record  the  facts  by  means  of  the 
signs  in  an  orderly  way.) 

The  Names  of  Numbers.  Teacher.  Please  count  the 
splints  on  the  table  before  you,  James.  J.  There  are  nine. 
T.  Write  the  figure  "nine."  (Handing  another  splint  to 
James.)  How  many  are  there  now  ?  James.  Ten.  T.  Please 
write  what  you  said.     J.  I  do  not  know  how.     T.  You  will 


ARITHMETIC  257 

be  able  to  write  ten  by  and  by.  Now,  suppose  we  tie  ten 
splints  into  a  bundle,  and  call  it  "  one  ten."  How  many  will 
there  be,  if  we  add  two  splints  ?  James.  There  will  be  "  one 
ten"  and  two.  T.  Yes ;  one  ten  and  two,  or,  as  we  say, 
"  twelve."  (The  new  names  are  introduced  by  "  association.") 
Now  watch,  and  I  will  show  you  how  to  write  "  twelve," 
that  is,  "  one  ten"  and  two.  I  will  write  the  "  one  ten"  to  the 
left  of  the  figure  1,  as  you  see.  Can  you  write  "one  ten" 
and  one,  Annie  ?  A.  1  think  I  can.  (Writes.)  T.  That  is 
right.  Now,  James,  can  you  write  ten,  that  is,  "  one"  ten  ? 
J.  I  must  write  the  figure  1  to  the  left,  but  I  do  not  know 
what  to  write  to  the  right  of  the  figure  1.  T.  How  many 
more  than  ten  splints  have  you?  James.  I  have  no  more 
than  ten.  T.  Then,  to  show  that  you  have  no  more  than 
"  one"  ten,  you  must  write  this — it  is  called  "  zero" — to  the 
right  of  the  figure  1.  Now  write  ten  and  six.  That  is  correct. 
Now  change  the  word  '•  ten"  into  "  teen,"  and  say  six  before  it. 
James.  Sixteen.  T.  Please  write  ten  and  nine,  Jennie.  What 
may  we  say  instead  of  ten  and  nine  ?  J.  Nineteen.  T.  Now 
write  ten  and  ten,  Jennie.  J.  Ten  and  ten  is  "two  tens." 
Must  I  write  the  figure  2  to  the  left  and  0  to  the  right? 
T.  That  is  just  what  you  must  do.  (Jennie  writes.)  T.  We 
said  twelve  instead  of  ten  and  two,  so  we  say  "  twenty"  in- 
stead of  "  two  tens."  Please  write  "  two  tens"  and  three. 
What  other  name  will  do  ?  J".  I  think  we  can  say  twenty 
and  three.  T.  Yes  ;  twenty  and  three,  or,  because  it  is  a  little 
shorter,  "  twenty-three,"  (New  names  thus  introduced  should 
always  be  written  on  the  board,  and  fixed  in  the  child's  mem- 
ory. The  pupil  should,  therefore,  write  these  names  as  often 
as  necessary.) 

"  Carrying."  Teacher.  Please  add  the  first  column  of  this 
problem.  What  is  your  answer,  Mary?  M.  It  is  fifteen. 
T.  What  can  you  say  instead  of  fifteen  ?  M.  "  One  ten"  and 
five.     T.  Where  are  the  two  figures,  1  and  5,  to  be  placed  ? 

17 


258         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

M.  Perhaps  the  figure  5  should  be  placed  under  the  first  col- 
umn, and  the  figure  1  under  the  second.  T.  Why  do  you 
think  so,  Mary?  31.  The  second  column  is  a  column  of 
"  tens"  (the  pupil  has  learned  this  before),  and  the  figure  1  is 
"  one  ten."  T.  That  is  a  good  thought,  Mary ;  but  instead 
of  putting  the  "  one  ten"  down  at  once,  "  carry"  it  over  into 
the  second  column,  and  add  it  to  the  sum  of  the  second  col- 
umn. M.  That  makes  "eleven  tens."  T.  Now,  what  will 
you  do  with  the  "  eleven  tens,"  Mary  ?  M.  "  Eleven  tens,"  or 
"  ten  tens"  and  "  one  ten,"  is  the  same  as  "  one  hundred"  and 
"  one  ten."  (This  fact  was  learned  in  a  preceding  lesson  on  no- 
tation and  numeration.)  I  must  write  the  "  one  ten"  under  the 
"  tens"  column,  and  the  "  one  hundred"  to  the  left.  T.  Have 
you  a  "  hundreds"  column  to  add  ?  M.  No,  sir.  T.  What 
right  have  you  to  write  "  one  hundred"  to  the  left  of  "  one 
ten"  in  your  answer  ?  ilf.  I  think  it  must  be  put  there  be- 
cause it  would  be  put  there  if  we  had  a  "  hundreds"  column 
to  add.  T.  You  have  answered  correctly.  We  must  now 
try  a  problem  with  a  "  hundreds"  column  in  it.  Please  work 
these  three  problems  (constructing  them)  for  your  afternoon 
recitation.     (Speed-drills  should  usually  follow.) 

"  Borrowing-."  Teacher.  Please  read  this  problem  (point- 
ing to  the  board),  Florence.  F.  From  609  take  235.  T. 
The  class  may  work  it.  Please  go  to  the  board  (They 
work).  (Seeing  that  the  class  hesitates  after  "  5  from  9  leaves 
4")  What  is  the  trouble,  Frank?  F.  There  is  no  "ten" 
from  which  to  take  "  three  tens."  T.  What  do  people  some- 
times do  to  get  money  to  pay  a  debt?  F.  Father  borrowed 
money  from  Mr.  Jones  to  pay  for  our  wagon.  T.  Suppose, 
then,  that  you  "  borrow"  "  one"  from  our  zero's  left  neighbor. 
How  many  "  tens"  is  the  borrowed  "  one"  worth  ?  F.  It  is 
equal  to  "  ten  tens."  (This  was  learned  in  preceding  lessons 
on  notation  and  numeration.)  T.  What  can  you  do  now? 
Grace.  Three  from  ten  leaves  seven  (putting  it  down).     T. 


ARITHMETIC  259 

Can  you  all  work  your  problem  now?  (They  work,  but 
Frank  forgets  that  he  borrowed  "  one"  from  neighbor  "  six.") 
T.  How  did  you  get  "  four"  as  your  last  figure,  Frank  ?  F. 
I  took  two  from  six,  and  had  four  left.  Emma  (raising  her 
hand).  Frank  should  have  said  "  two  from  five."  (Frank, 
seeing  his  error,  makes  the  necessary  correction.)  T.  Please 
solve  the  following  problems  (writing  them),  and  bring  them 
this  afternoon.  (Speed-drills  in  adding  and  subtracting 
should  follow.  The  teacher  should  encourage  self-dependence 
in  these  young  workers.) 

The  "Three  Times"  Table.  Teacher  (standing  at  the 
board).  How  many  times  have  I  written  the  figure  3,  George  ? 
G.  Only  one  time.  T.  Then  one  time  3  is  how  many  ?  G. 
One  time  3  is  3.  T.  I  will  write  what  you  said  (writing 
3X1=3).  T.  How  many  times  have  I  written  the  figure  3 
now  ?  Class.  Two  times.  T.  Please  add  the  two  3's.  How 
many  does  it  make?  C.  Six.  T.  Then  2  times  3  is  how 
many?  Neivton.  Two  times  3  is  6.  T.  Please  write  it 
under  (3X1=  3).  (Newton  writes  (3x2  =  6).)  Can 
you  now  take  3  three  times,  and  write  it  down?  Four 
times,  etc.  ? 

Taught  in  this  constructive  way,  the  multiplication  tables 
will  be  understood,  and  can  be  readily  reproduced  by  the 
pupils.  These  reconstructions  should,  of  course,  be  required. 
The  pupil  should  speah  as  well  as  ivrite  the  tables,  until  it  can  be 
done  very  rapidly,  "  forward"  at  first,  and  then  "  backward." 
"When  these  things  have  been  done  (by  adding  and  subtract- 
ing), the  tables  should  be  drilled  into  "  memories,"  i.e.,  they 
should  be  made  "automatic."  The  figures  from  1  to  12  may 
be  arranged  in  a  circle  (the  "  table-figure"  in  the  centre),  for 
drill.  This  is  the  trying  stage  in  the  mastery  of  a  multiplica- 
tion table,  but  the  work  must  be  done  if  the  tables  are  ever  to 
serve  their  purpose,  namely,  economy  in  multiplication  and 
division.     Problems  involving  the  tables  as   far   as   known 


260         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

should  be  assigned  in  great  numbers,  until  the  tables  become 
permanent  and  serviceable  possessions. 

Multiplying-.  Where  to  place  the  multiplier,  with  which 
figures  to  multiply  in  order,  and  how  to  place  the  partial 
products,  must  be  taught,  as  in  the  preceding  lessons,  by  ob- 
servation of  examples,  thus  requiring  induction  in  order  to 
think  the  "  rule"  and  deductive  exercises  to  fix  it.  The 
reasons  fi)r  the  steps  can  be  taught  a  little  later  by  generalizing 
the  concept  of  "place"  in  notation.  (The  methods-student 
should  be  required  to  write  out  the  recitations  as  illustrated.) 

Dividing.  Where  to  place  the  divisor,  dividend,  and  quo- 
tient, how  to  proceed  in  short  division,  how  to  proceed  in  long 
division,  and  how  to  use  the  multiplication  tables  in  division, 
and  how  to  do  whatever  else  must  be  done,  must  be  taught  in 
the  same  way  as  above.  It  is  believed  that  "  long"  division 
is  more  complex  than  "  short"  division,  and  that  it  should, 
therefore,  be  introduced  a  little  later.  The  teacher  should 
work  the  same  problem  both  ways  side  by  side  on  the  board, 
so  that  the  pupils  can  see  that  long  and  short  division  are  sim- 
ply two  modes  of  getting  the  same  result.  The  divisor  in  this 
contrast  of  long  and  short  division  should  be  less  than  10  at 
first.  (The  methods-student  should  be  required  to  write  out 
the  recitation.) 

Speed-Drills  in  the  Four  Operations.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant deductive  exercises  in  arithmetic  are  speed-drills,  i.e., 
practice  in  rapid  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and  dividing. 
The  ability  to  perform  these  operations  rapidly  without  mis- 
take is  a  great  practical  advantage. 

(1)  The  ability  to  add  rapidly  without  mistake  is  probably 
the  least  common  and  the  most  important.  Pupils  should  be 
taught  to  add  by  2's,  3's,  4's,  5's,  6's,  7's,  8's,  etc.,  and  then 
irregularly.  These  drills  sliould  sometimes  be  conducted  with- 
out the  aid  of  figures,  and  sometimes  with  figures. 

(2)  Finding  the  sum  and  difference  of  any  two  numbers  is 


ARITHMETIC  261 

an  excellent  exercise  for  the  development  of  arithmetical 
speed.  In  these  exercises  the  teacher  may  proceed  in  two 
ways :  (a)  He  may  write  some  number,  as  7,  on  the  board, 
and  then  name  other  numbers,  as  4,  3,  6,  etc.,  expecting  the 
pupil  or  pupils  to  tell  the  sum  and  difference  at  once.  (6) 
He  may  name  two  numbers  each  time,  as  5  and  8,  expecting 
the  pupils  to  say  IS,  S,  at  once.  At  first  the  answers  may  be 
given  in  sentences,  "  The  sum  of  5  and  8  is  13 ;  the  difference 
is  3." 

(3)  Four  columns  of  figures  headed  +,  — ,  X,  and  -^  re- 
spectively, all  beginning  with  1  and  ending  with  the  figure  to 
which  the  class  has  reached  in  multiplication  and  division, 
should  be  used  as  a  speed-drill  in  the  four  operations.  When, 
for  example,  the  class  has  studied  the  "  9  times"  table,  the 
columns  should  be  written  thus  : 

+  -  X  -^ 


1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

9 

The  teacher  points  to  any  figure  in  any  column,  avoiding 
"  remainders,"  and  the  pupil  or  pupils  at  ouce  name  the  sum, 
difference,  product,  or  quotient. 

The  "  Fraction"  Concepts.  Teacher.  What  have  I  done, 
Mary  ?  M.  You  have  broken  a  stick  of  candy  into  three  pieces. 
T.  Please  hold  the  pieces  side  by  side.  What  is  true,  class  ? 
C.  The  pieces  are  alike.  T.  What  may  we  call  oTie  of  the 
three  "  equal  parts"  into  which  the  candy  was  broken,  Paul  ? 
P.  A  three-part.     T.  Yes;   a  three-part,  or  a  third.     How 


262         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

many  thirds  do  I  hold  up  now  ?  P.  Two  thirds.  (Similar 
questions  should  be  used  with  other  divisions,  cuts,  breaks, 
etc.,  until  the  pupil  sees  how  to  name  the  parts,  and  why.) 
Teacher.  What  might  we  call  one  or  more  equal  parts  of  a 
thing  ?  (No  one  can  tell.)  One  or  more  of  the  equal  parts  of 
a  thing,  is  called  a  Fraction.  James,  what  is  a  fraction? 
The  class  may  think  of  three-fourths.  Jane,  can  you  show 
me  three-fourths  of  this  apple  (handing  her  a  knife)  ?  Harry, 
please  take  these  beans  and  arrange  them  in  four  equal  heaps. 
How  many  beans  are  there  in  all  ?  How  many  are  there  in 
each  heap  ?  What  may  we  call  one  of  these  equal  heaps  of 
beans  ?  Then,  what  is  one- fourth  of  twelve  ?  Three-fourths  ? 
How  many  fourths  are  there  in  all  ? 

The  "  Terms"  of  a  Fraction.  Teacher.  What  is  one  of 
the  four  equal  parts  of  this  apple  called,  Ralph  ?  R.  One- 
fourth.  T.  Please  write  the  word  on  the  board.  (Ralph 
writes  "  one-fourth.")  Teacher.  Let  me  write  it.  (Writes  it 
thus  (^1^)  at  first,  and  then  |.)  Into  how  many  parts 
have  I  divided  this  apple,  class?  C.  Into  four  parts.  T. 
Which  figure  shows  it,  Clara?  C.  The  figure  4.  T.  That 
"4"  is  called  the  Denominator  (writing  the  word).  What 
does  the  denominator  show,  James  ?  How  many  parts  do  I 
hold  in  my  left  hand  ?  Class.  One.  '  T.  Please  point  to  the 
figure  which  shows  how  many  parts  I  have  taken.  (Ralph 
points  to  the  figure  above  the  line.)  T.  That  "  1"  is  called 
the  Numerator.  Nell,  what  is  the  numerator  of  a  fraction  ? 
(Many  drills  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  terms  learned  per- 
manent possessions  of  the  pupil's  understanding  and  memory.) 

Two-Thirds  and  Four-Sixths.  Teacher.  Into  how  many 
equal  parts  have  I  divided  this  circle  (pointing  to  it)  ?  What 
is  one  part  called,  Herbert?  H.  One-third.  T.  What  are 
two  parts  called?  H.  Two-thirds.  T.  Please  divide  each 
third  into  two  equal  parts.  How  many  parts  are  there  in  all  ? 
What  is  one  of  your  six  equal  parts  called?     How  many 


AEITHMETIC  263 

sixths  are  there  in  two-thirds  ?  How  many  thirds  can  you 
make  out  of  four-sixths  ?  Six-sixths  ?  (In  all  these  lessons — 
and  there  should  be  many  with  many  variations  in  the  means — 
the  pupil  should  be  conducted  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract, 
and  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.) 

Two-Thirds  of  Three-Fourths.  Teacher.  Please  draw  a 
square,  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  parts,  Bessie  ?  What  is 
one  of  your  parts  called  ?  Now  divide  each  fourth  into  three 
equal  parts.  How  many  parts  are  there  in  all  ?  What  is  one 
of  these  small  parts  called  ?  What  part  of  one-fourth  is  one- 
twelfth  ?  How  many  twelfths  does  it  take  to  make  two-thirds 
of  one-fourth?  Two-thirds  of  three-fourths?  I  will  now 
show  you  how  to  get  the  same  answer  with  figures.  What 
have  I  done,  Walter  ?  W.  You  have  multiplied  the  numera- 
tors, 2  and  3,  together  and  written  the  6  as  a  numerator.  T. 
And  now  ?  W.  You  have  multiplied  the  denominators,  3  and 
4,  together  and  written  the  12  as  new  denominator.  T.  What 
can  I  do  to  make  the  six-twelfths  one-half?  W.  Divide  both 
numbers  by  6.  (By  and  by,  but  not  at  first,  the  device  of 
cancelling  should  be  introduced  into  such  problems.) 

Division  by  Fractions.  Teacher.  If  James  can  drink  two 
pints  of  milk  a  day,  how  many  days  will  it  take  him  to  drink 
six  pints,  Jacob?  /.  It  will  take  him  just  three  days.  T. 
How  did  you  get  your  answer  ?  J".  I  divided  6  by  2.  T. 
Then,  if  James  could  drink  only  a  half-pint  every  day,  how 
must  you  reckon  out  how  long  it  will  take  him  to  drink  the 
six  pints  ?  J.  I  must  divide  by  one-half.  T.  Please  try  it. 
(James  knows  how  to  divide  6  by  2,  but  cannot  divide  6 
by  ^.)  T.  Let  me  show  you,  James.  This  is  the  problem 
(writes  6  —  ^).  It  must  be  written  thus  (writes  f  X  f  =  ^)' 
What  did  I  do  to  get  the  12?  J.  You  turned  the  divi- 
sor (^)  upside  down,  and  did  what  must  be  done  in  multi- 
plication. T.  Yes;  I  "inverted"  the  divisor,  and  proceeded 
as  in  multiplication.     What  then  must  we  always  do  when  the 


264         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

divisor  is  a  fraction  ?  You  may  all  go  to  the  board.  Please 
divide  seven  by  three-fourths.  (Other  exercises  must,  of 
course,  be  added.) 

The  reason  for  "  inverting"  the  divisor  when  it  is  a  fraction 
is  too  difficult  at  this  point ;  it  is  a  question  of  "  reciprocal  re- 
lation," and  requires  abstract  reasoning.  But  by  and  by  the 
pupil  must  be  led  to  see  that  if,  for  example,  one  (3-thirds) 
contains  one  (3-thirds)  just  one  time,  it  must  contain  2-thirds 
as  often  as  2  is  contained  into  3,  or  f ;  that  the  "  inversion" 
of  the  divisor  (|),  is  the  "  quotient"  of  unity  divided  by  the 
fraction  ;  and  that  this  quotient  must  be  multiplied  by  6  to  get 
the  vt^hole  quotient. 

The  "  Decimal"  Concepts.  Teacher.  Emily,  what  is  one 
of  ten  equal  parts  of  anything  called?  E.  One-tenth.  T. 
Please  write  it  with  figures.  Let  me  show  the  class  another 
way  of  writing -jig-,  (Writes  .1.)  What  have  I  done  ?  George. 
You  wrote  the  figure  1  with  a  dot  before  it.  T.  The  dot 
stands  for  the  10  in  ^,  and  is  called  the  Decimal  point. 
Please  read  this  (pointing  to  .3).  Fi^anh.  I  think  it  is  three- 
tenths.  T.  Is  three-tenths  a  whole  number  ?  F.  It  is  a  frac- 
tion. T.  What,  then,  may  we  call  the  "  3"  with  a  decimal 
point  before  it,  Helen  2  H.  A  decimal  fraction.  T.  Please 
read  this  (writing  .12).  James  (after  a  little  silence  on  the 
part  of  the  class).  The  one  is  one-tenth,  but  I  do  not  know 
what  to  call  the  2.  T.  If  the  decimal  point  before  one  figure 
stands  for  10,  for  what  must  it  stand  before  two  figures  ?  (The 
class  comes  to  a  dead  halt,  and  the  teacher  must  tell  them 
that  before  two  figures  the  decimal  point  stands  for  100,  before 
three  figures  for  1000,  and  that  therefore  .12  is  read  12  hun- 
dredths, and  .235  two  hundred  thirty-five  thousandths.  A  little 
more  drill  will  fix  the  mode  of  decimal  notation  and  numera- 
tion.) 

The  next  lesson  introduces  the  decimal  operations,  the  teacher 
working  examples,  showing  where  to  place  the  decimal  point, 


ARITHMETIC  265 

until  by  induction  the  pupils  learn  the  "rules."  The  best 
motto  in  all  these  lessons  is  to  "  make  haste  slowly,"  since,  as 
the  teacher  well  knows,  percentage  problems  require  absolute 
mastery  of  the  decimal  operations. 

The  Denominate  Numbers.  (1)  Every  table  should  be 
built  up  concretely,  i.e.,  by  actual  measurements.  When,  for 
example,  the  pupil  has  seen  that  2  pints  make  a  quart,  8 
quarts  a  peck,  etc.,  the  observations  may  be  arranged  into 
tables.  These  tables  must,  of  course,  for  the  sake  of  economy, 
be  committed.  This  work  is  not  difficult  if  the  tables  are 
properly  built.  (2)  Playing  "  store"  is  a  most  interesting  and 
eifective  way  of  combining  a  number  of  tables  into  practical 
use.  (3)  The  denominate  operations  are  to  be  taught  by  the 
development  method,  the  teacher  working  examples  and  ask- 
ing such  questions  or  adding  such  explanations  as  may  help  the 
pupil  in  his  inductions.  Plenty  of  practical  work  should  be 
assigned,  and  the  work  should  include  both  common  and  deci- 
mal fractions,  though,  of  course,  in  the  elementary  course,  all 
the  operations  should  be  simple  enough  for  the  pupil's  present 
powers.  (The  methods-student  should  be  required  to  teach 
illustrative  lessons.) 

It  is  not  supposed  even  for  a  moment  that  every  teacher 
will  develop  a  concept  or  a  rule  in  just  the  same  language  or 
the  same  syllogisms,  but  all  can  work  out  the  development 
ideal. 

II.  INTERMEDIATE  ARITHMETIC. 

The  intermediate  course,  i.e.,  the  course  of  remoter  relations 
(see  page  247),  belongs  for  that  reason  to  the  period  of  life 
commonly  called  the  "  Grammar  School"  period.  It  should 
extend  from  the  age  of  about  eleven  years  to  that  of  fourteen. 
The  special  features  of  intermediate  arithmetic  fall  naturally 
under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Ends  in  View ;  (2)  The 
Methods  of  Instruction;  (3)  The  Order  of  Subjects;  (4) 
"Written  Arithmetic ;  and  (5)  Mental  Arithmetic. 


266         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Intermediate  Arithmetic.  The 
things  to  be  accomplished  in  the  course  of  intermediate  arith- 
metic are  as  follows :  (1)  Great  proficiency  in  the  subjects  taken 
up  in  the  elementary  course,  and  (2)  Advancement  to  such 
subjects  as  by  reason  of  their  greater  complexity  afford  harder 
discipline  and  such  as  are  necessary  in  the  expanded  and  still 
expanding  life  of  the  pupil.  These  points  are  so  obvious  that 
they  require  no  extended  development,  and  will  be  assumed  in 
the  following  pages. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Intermediate  Arithmetic. 
The  nature  of  the  new  subjects  to  which  the  pupil  is  to  be  in- 
troduced in  intermediate  arithmetic  requires,  as  was  explained 
(see  page  247),  no  new  method  ;  but,  since  arithmetic  is  to  be 
developed  into  a  useful  art,  deduction,  the  form  of  reasoning 
that  applies  general  truths  to  the  details  of  life,  must  be 
allowed  to  predominate  over  induction.  The  opportunity  for 
deductive  reasoning,  as  was  pointed  out  (see  page  247),  is  very 
great.     Two  topics  deserve  our  special  attention  at  this  time  : 

(1)  The  Development  of  Concepts,  Eules,  and  Axioms;  and 

(2)  The  Derivation  of  Principles  and  Rules. 

The  Development  of  Concepts  in  Intermediate  Arithmetic. 
Such  concepts  as  ratio,  proportion,  percentage,  progression, 
involution,  and  evolution,  must  obviously  be  developed  by 
observation  of  examples,  consequent  induction,  and  proof 
deductions. 

The  Development  of  Rules  in  Intermediate  Arithmetic.  Pupils 
in  arithmetic  should  seldom,  except  in  mensuration  and  sev- 
eral other  cases,  be  allowed  to  work  "by  rule."  Work  "  by 
rule"  is  almost  certain  to  dwarf  the  analytic  habit  so  desirable 
in  good  thinking.  Therefore,  rules  in  intermediate  arithmetic, 
with  the  exceptions  as  stated,  should  be  developed  as  before 
by  analytic  observation  of  examples  and  such  induction  as 
will  always  look  for  variations  in  new  problems. 

The  Development  of  Aosioms,     Axioms  are  generally  defined 


ARITHMETIC  267 

as  self-evident  truths.  The  belief  has  prevailed  that  axioms 
are  absolutely  a  •priori  truths,  i.e.,  truths  at  which  the  mind 
arrives  without  the  inductive  process.  This  conclusion  is 
probably  incorrect.  It  is  altogether  likely  that  axioms  differ 
from  other  general  truths  only  in  this,  that  they  are  obviously 
undeniable  and  universal.  Induction  is,  however,  as  it  ap- 
pears, their  real  origin,  though  the  wonderful  thing  about 
these  inductions  is  the  '"reach"  to  which  the  young  mind 
arrives  so  early  in  life.  Indeed,  the  axioms  of  arithmetic  are 
all  present  in  the  child's  mind  before  "  lessons"  begin.  Take, 
for  example,  the  axiom  that  "  The  whole  is  greater  than  any 
of  its  parts."  Somewhere  in  childhood,  nobody  knows  when, 
the  mind  virtually  thought  the  subjoined  syllogism : 

' '  This  whole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts  ; 
This  whole  is  a  sample  of  all  wholes  ; 
Therefore,  any  whole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts." 

But,  although  the  child  has  probably  arrived  at  all  the  axioms 
of  arithmetic  by  induction  long  before  it  could  state  the  syllo- 
gism, it  is  obviously  a  splendid  discipline  for  an  intermediate 
pupil  to  illustrate  the  origin  of  the  various  axioms  and  to  state 
the  syllogisms  in  which  they  are  the  conclusion. 

The  Derivation  of  Principles.  Principles,  as  was  shown  on 
page  245,  can  be  developed  by  induction,  as  in  the  case  of 
factoring,  and  should  be  so  developed ;  but,  as  a  most  effective 
discipline,  they  should  also  be  derived  from  axioms,  i.e.,  they 
should  be  demonstrated,  or  proved,  deductively.  Take,  for 
example,  the  principle  that  "  Dividing  the  denominator  of  a 
fraction  by  any  number  multiplies  the  value  of  the  fraction 
by  that  number."  This  truth  should  first  be  illustrated  in  the 
concrete,  and  developed  by  induction  ;  but  it  should  then  be 
referred  to  the  axiom  one  of  whose  derivatives  it  is,  and 
proved  by  deductive  reasoning.  The  principle  in  question 
rests  on  the  axiom  that  "  A  whole  is  the  sum  of  all  its  parts." 


268         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Dividing  the  denominator  by  any  number  is  the  same  as  di- 
viding a  whole  into  fewer  parts,  each  of  which  must  also  be 
the  sum  of  the  smaller  parts  that  would  have  been  the  results 
of  dividing  the  whole  by  a  larger  number,  and  the  larger  parts 
must  obviously  be  as  much  larger  as  the  number  by  which  it 
was  proposed  to  divide  the  denominator.  Accordingly,  "  Di- 
viding the  denominator,  etc.'^  The  principles  of  the  "  four" 
operations,  and  those  of  fractions  and  factoring,  should  be  thus 
proved  in  intermediate  arithmetic.  Much  of  this  work  of  de- 
duction, of  course,  cannot  be  done  before  the  high-school  period. 
The  Derivation  of  Rules.  It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  the 
mind,  and  a  great  practical  advantage,  to  be  able  to  show  that 
rules  can  be  gotten  from  principles,  just  as  principles  can  be 
derived  from  axioms ;  and  a  still  greater  conquest,  to  be  able 
to  get  original  rules  from  given  principles.  Take,  for  ex- 
ample, the  rule  for  finding  the  "  greatest  common  divisor"  of 
fractions.  The  rule  should  be  developed  "  by  trial,"  i.e.,  by 
observation  and  induction ;  but  it  should  also  be  deduced  from 
the  principle  that  "  Dividing  the  numerator  of  a  fraction,  or 
multiplying  its  denominator,  by  any  number,  divides  the 
value  of  the  fraction  by  that  number."  Suppose  the  fractions 
to  be  f ,  f,  f ,  and  -^.  The  "  greatest  common  divisor"  is 
wanted,  i.e.,  the  largest  number  that  will  divide  all  the  frac- 
tions exactly.  How  shall  it  be  done?  Referring  to  our 
principle,  we  are  told  how  to  proceed  in  case  of  one  frac- 
tion ;  we  must  divide  the  numerator  and  multiply  the  denom- 
inator. Having  treated  all  the  numerators  "by  trial,"  we 
find  the  greatest  common  dividing  number  to  be  2.  The  "  least 
common  multiple"  of  the  denominators  must,  according  to  the 
stated  principle,  be  the  divisor  wanted,  since  it  contains  all  the 
old  denominators,  i.e.,  divides  them  exactly.  Therefore,  in 
the  proposed  problem  the  G.  C.  D.  is  -^.  Much  of  this 
work  of  deduction  must,  by  reason  of  the  dependence  of 
arithmetic  on  geometry  and  algebra,  be  deferred  to  a  later 


ARITHMETIC  269 

course  in  arithmetic.  Such  is  the  case  with  the  rules  of  men- 
suration. Many  rules,  such  as  those  of  fractions,  etc.,  can, 
however,  be  referred  to  principles  even  in  intermediate  classes. 

The  Problems  of  Intermediate  Arithmetic.  The  prob- 
lems of  intermediate  arithmetic  should,  in  accordance  with  the 
ends  in  view,  be  complex  enough  for  higher  discipline,  and 
practical  enough  for  the  ends  of  life.  Intermediate  pupils 
should  be  required  to  work  problems  with  very  little  aid  from 
anybody,  to  state  solutions  in  the  best  forms,  and  to  explain 
the  problems  in  strictest  logic.  These  requirements  are  ap- 
plicable to  both  written  and  mental  arithmetic. 

The  Order  of  Subjects  in  Intermediate  Arithmetic. 
Those  operations  in  which  the  conceptions  are  complex,  and 
the  relations  somewhat  remote,  are  the  subjects  of  intermediate 
arithmetic.  They  are,  as  was  shown  in  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter,  higher  forms  of  the  elementary  conceptions  and 
processes.  The  logical  dependence  of  subjects  in  arithmetic 
determines  their  true  order  of  presentation  in  text-books  and 
lessons.  In  practice  the  order  of  subjects  is  determined  by 
the  adopted  text-book.  The  arrangements  of  Brooks,  Hull, 
and  Prince,  are  possibly  as  satisfactory  as  any. 

a.    WEITTEN   ARITHMETIC. 

The  special  features  of  written  arithmetic  fall  under  the 
following  heads :  (1)  Problems ;  (2)  Answers ;  (3)  Assign- 
ment of  Lessons ;  (4)  Preparation  of  Lessons ;  and  (5)  Reci- 
tation. These  topics  deserve  attention  in  all  the  courses  of 
arithmetic,  but  are  most  conveniently  treated  in  intermediate 
arithmetic,  since  mental  and  written  arithmetic  are  first  sepa- 
rated in  this  course. 

The  Problems  of  Written  Arithmetic.  The  distinc- 
tion between  written  and  mental  arithmetic  is  pointed  out  on 
page  275.  (1)  Discipline  is  their  common  aim,  and  the  prob- 
lems under  the  various  rules  should  be  so  varied  in  conditions 


270         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

that  they  cannot  be  solved  by  any  mechanical  "  the-rule-says- 
so." 

(2)  Skill  in  computation^  i.e.,  brevity  of  statement  and  speed 
in  calculation^  is  the  special  aim  of  written  arithmetic.  The 
number,  therefore,  as  well  as  the  variety  of  problems  under  each 
subject,  should  be  adapted  to  this  special  purpose.  When  the 
number  of  problems  in  the  adopted  text-book  is  not  adequate 
— and  this  must  often  happen — supplementary  problems  must 
be  provided.  The  proficient  teacher  will  have  no  trouble  in 
the  performance  of  this  duty  ;  teachers  of  all  grades  will  find 
the  books  of  Dr.  John  T.  Prince  (Arithmetic  by  Grades)  very 
suggestive  and  helpful. 

The  Answers  to  Problems  in  Written  Arithmetic. 
Authors  of  written  arithmetics  seem  to  believe  that  the  an- 
swers of  problems  should  accomj)any  the  text,  or,  if  not  that, 
they  should  at  least  be  found  in  an  appendix.  Many  teachers 
approve  of  such  text-books. 

This  position  is  open  to  grave  objections.  (1)  Pupils  will 
work  for  the  answer,  and,  having  obtained  the  given  answer, 
they  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  prove  it.  Of  the  two  habits 
thus  formed,  that  of  depending  on  others  is  a  poor  preparation 
for  life,  and  that  of  neglecting  to  prove  truth  is  positively 
dangerous.  (2)  It  is  certainly  possible  to  do  without  such 
answers.  This  has  been  practically  demonstrated  in  the  case 
of  mental  arithmetic,  where  they  are  seldom  found  and  rarely 
desired.  Moreover,  pupils  trained  into  the  habit  of  proving 
their  own  answers  from  the  beginning,  will  not  need  such 
make-shifts,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  are  forming  the 
valuable  habits  of  self-dependence  and  truth -seeking.  It  is, 
therefore,  to  be  lamented  that  our  school  arithmetics  contain 
such  objectionable  helps. 

The  question  arises.  Why  do  our  authors  give  these  answers, 
and  why  do  many  teachers  want  such  books  ?  The  answer 
consists  of  two  items  :  (1)  Authors  are  required  to  give  such 


ARITHMETIC  271 

helps  because  the  mass  of  teachers  demand  it ;  and  (2)  The 
demand  grows  out  of  the  feeling  of  dependence  which,  through 
this  very  bhinder  in  text-books,  has  become  the  habit  of  so 
many  teachers.  Moreover,  teachers  suppose  it  to  be  a  "  saving 
of  time  and  labor"  to  have  such  books.  This  attitude  of  teach- 
ers reveals  a  misconception  of  the  teaching- process  which  is  in- 
defensible, except  in  novices.  Where  books  containing  an- 
swers have  been  adopted,  the  teacher  should  do  the  best  he  can 
to  ignore  them. 

The  Assignment  of  Lessons  in  Written  Arithmetic. 
The  pupil  should  know  just  how  much  ground  he  is  expected 
to  cover.  Definite  requirement  is  a  stimulus  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  lessons.  Such  suggestions  and  preparatory  drills  as 
will  put  the  pupil  on  the  way  to  help  himself,  should  be  con- 
nected with  the  assignment  of  lessons.  If  the  same  lesson  can 
be  assigned  to  a  number  of  pupils,  the  stimulus  of  definite  as- 
signments will  be  very  effective,  and  the  necessary  suggestions 
will  do  for  the  many  as  well  as  for  one  pupil.  Generally  it 
will  be  found  best  to  assign  the  next  arithmetic  lessons  at  the 
dose  of  recitations.  The  teacher  will  then  know  just  what 
hints,  directions,  and  helps,  may  be  needed.  In  order  to  suc- 
ceed in  these  matters,  the  arithmetic  teacher  must  evidently 
study  every  lesson  every  time  he  teaches  it,  even  if  that  be  a 
hundred  times.  It  is  not  possible  for  any  ordinary  human 
being  to  remember  the  snags,  switches,  and  pitfalls  from  year 
to  year,  so  well  as  to  be  able  to  dispense  with  thinking  the 
problem  over  every  time. 

The  Preparation  of  Lessons  in  Written  Arithmetic. 
The  lessons  should  never  be  so  long  as  to  make  it  impossible 
to  work  all  the  problems,  or  at  least  all  the  doubtful  ones. 
In  case  of  younger  pupils,  it  is  safest  to  require  all  problems 
to  be  worked  and  offered  for  inspection ;  in  the  case  of  older 
pupils,  successful  recitation  may  be  taken  as  sufficient  evidence 
of  preparation.    As  a  moral  precaution,  younger  pupils  should 


272         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

work  their  lessons  in  school  hours  and  under  the  teacher's  eye ; 
older  pupils  should  be  required  to  do  some  work  out  of  school 
hours.  In  all  cases,  the  teacher  should  strive  to  cultivate  self- 
dependence  in  his  workers. 

The  Recitation  in  Written  Arithmetic.  The  character- 
istics of  a  recitation  in  arithmetic  can  be  most  conveniently 
considered  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  The  Objects  of  the 
Recitation ;  (2)  The  Preparation  of  the  Board ;  (3)  The  As- 
signment of  Problems;  (4)  The  Working  of  Problems;  (5) 
The  Pupil's  Explanation ;  (6)  Criticisms ;  (7)  The  Teacher's 
Pai-t  in  Problems;  (8)  Attention  to  the  General  Truths  of 
Arithmetic ;  and  (9)  The  Importance  of  Reviews. 

The  Objects  of  the  Recitation.  The  objects  of  a  recitation, 
whether  it  be  in  arithmetic  or  any  other  branch,  are  as  follows  : 
(1)  To  stimulate  the  pupil  to  study;  (2)  To  exercise  all  the 
functions  of  the  pupil's  mind ;  and  (3)  To  develop  the  subject 
in  question.  In  short,  every  lesson  should  count  as  so  much 
discipline  and  as  so  much  progress  in  the  subject. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Board.  At  a  given  signal,  the  pupils 
should  "prepare  the  board,"  i.e.,  they  should  carefully  erase 
whatever  interferes  with  the  purpose  of  the  recitation,  and 
write  their  names  at  the  head  of  the  board.  After  these  pre- 
liminaries, the  pupils  should  face  the  teacher  and  wait  for 
assignments. 

The  Assignment  of  Problems.  In  case  of  younger  pupils,  the 
same  problem  should  be  assigned  to  the  whole  class  by  dicta- 
tion. The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the  pupils  do  not 
"  copy"  in  working  the  problem.  In  case  of  older  pupils,  a 
different  task  should  be  assigned  to  every  pupil.  The  ideal 
way  of  assigning  problems  is  to  write  them  on  prepared  slips 
of  paper,  together  with  the  number  of  the  problem  and  the 
page  of  the  book  from  which  it  may  be  taken,  and  to  dis- 
tribute the  papers  by  lot.  This  plan  is,  however,  not  always 
practicable.     In  such  cases,  the  problems  may  be  assigned  by 


ARITHMETIC  273 

dictation,  or  by  number  and  page.  If  no  book  is  allowed  at 
the  board — and  that  is  best  when  books  contain  answers,  or 
when  the  class  is  small — ^the  pupils  should  be  taught  to  record 
the  conditions  of  the  dictated  problem  in  some  "  short-hand" 
way.  If  books  are  used  at  the  board — and  this  is  allowable 
when  the  class  is  very  large,  when  the  books  do  not  have  the 
answers,  or  when  the  pupils  are  adults — the  problems  may  be 
assigned  by  number  and  page.  The  number  and  page  by 
which  the  problem  was  assigned  should  be  written  over  the 
pupils'  board  for  the  convenience  of  the  teacher  and  the  class. 

The  Working  of  the  Problems.  The  pupils  should  be  taught 
to  do  beautiful  as  well  as  correct  and  rapid  work  at  the  board. 
Precision  and  system  are  of  great  importance.  Points,  sym- 
bols, lines,  figures,  etc.,  should,  accordingly,  be  strictly  correct, 
and  problems  should  be  arranged  as  well  as  possible.  No  com- 
munications should  be  allowed  between  workers.  A  quiet, 
courteous,  and  natural  dignity  should  be  cultivated. 

The  PupiVs  Explanation  of  Problems.  As  soon  as  a  pupil 
has  worked  his  problem,  he  should  quietly  take  a  seat,  or  wait 
for  new  orders  from  the  teacher.  When  all,  or  nearly  all,  the 
workers  have  done  their  work,  the  problems  should  be  ex- 
plained by  the  pupils.  These  explanations  should  be  clear, 
concise,  and  logical.  The  pupil  explaining  should  stand  erect 
at  the  board,  facing  the  teacher  and  the  class  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, holding  the  pointer  in  his  right  hand,  and  allowing  the 
left  hand  to  drop  at  his  side.  The  habit  of  speaking  earnestly, 
distinctly,  and  persuasively  should  be  developed  in  these  ex- 
planatory exercises.  The  explanations,  as  was  pointed  out, 
are  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  pupil.  The  rest  of  the 
class  should  be  required  to  listen  very  attentively.  This  re- 
quirement is  a  valuable  stimulus,  since  it  causes  "  comparison" 
and  converts  every  pupil  into  an  adjutant  teacher. 

Criticisms.  The  pupil's  work  and  explanation  must  often 
be   supplemented  and  criticised.     The  whole  class  must  be 

18 


274         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ready  for  such  additions  and  criticisms.  This  exercise  is  of 
the  highest  importance  to  the  discipline  and  instruction  of  all. 

The  Teacher^s  Part  in  Problems.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
offer  suggestions  to  workers  at  the  board,  and  to  give  direc- 
tions to  those  who  seem  to  be  unable  to  proceed.  The  right 
time  for  such  help  must  be  determined  by  the  circumstances. 
The  teacher  should  not  work  problems  for  pupils,  except  as  a 
last  resort,  and  even  then  it  may  be  better  to  work  another 
problem  that  involves  the  same  principles.  Sometimes  it  is 
well  to  let  pupils  try  for  several  days  to  do  a  problem,  the 
teacher  offering  such  hints  as  may  seem  in  place.  The  teacher 
should  supplement  and  criticise  the  pupil's  explanation  of 
problems,  and  add  such  information  as  may  create  interest  in 
arithmetic. 

Attention  to  the  General  Truths  of  Arithmetic.  The  impres- 
sion seems  to  prevail  that  the  great  thing  in  arithmetic  is  "  to 
work  and  explain  problems."  The  whole  truth  is,  that  defi- 
nitions, rules,  principles,  and  axioms  must  be  taught  in  con- 
nection with  problems.  But  these  general  truths  of  arithmetic 
should  be  developed  by  induction  or  derived  by  deduction,  as 
the  case  may  be,  in  accordance  with  the  methods  already  de- 
scribed, nor  should  any  "  text"  statements  of  such  truths  ever 
be  committed  unless  they  are  understood.  The  pupil's  own 
statement,  the  immediate  evidence  of  his  own  thinking,  is  to 
be  generally  preferred.  Much  of  this  work  is  most  conven- 
iently connected  with  the  assignment  of  lessons  and  reviews. 

The  Importance  of  Reviews  in  Arithmetic.  There  should,  of 
course,  be  formal  reviews  once  a  week  or  once  in  two  weeks, 
and  monthly  tests.  Every  truth  ever  learned,  and  every  power 
of  computation  ever  acquired,  should  thus  become  permanent 
possessions.  In  addition  to  these  formal  reviews  and  tests, 
every  recitation  should  consist  partly  of  reviews  and  tests. 
Such  connections  will  not  only  stimulate  thorough  preparation 
and  private  review,  but  serve  as  introductions  to  advances. 


ARITHMETIC  275 

In  these  reviews  no  help  should  be  oiFered  except  in  extreme 
cases.  The  teacher  needs  excellent  judgment  in  these,  as  in 
all  cases. 

h.   MENTAL   ARITHMETIC. 

The  special  features  of  mental  arithmetic  are  most  con- 
veniently studied  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Nature 
of  Mental  Arithmetic;  (2)  The  Preparation  of  Lessons;  (3) 
The  Recitation  in  Mental  Arithmetic ;  and  (4)  The  Importance 
of  Mental  Arithmetic. 

The  Nature  of  Mental  Arithmetic.  Mental  arithmetic 
is  so  named,  not  because  written  arithmetic  is  only  a  physical 
process,  but  because  in  mental  arithmetic  the  "  number-opera- 
tions" are  performed  without  the  aid  of  "  figures."  The  real 
difference  between  these  two  species  of  arithmetic  is  this,  that 
mental  arithmetic  is  eminently  analytical  and  inductive,  while 
written  arithmetic  lays  more  stress  on  economic  abridgments 
and  deductions.  These  distinctions  between  mental  and  writ- 
ten arithmetic  may  be  understood  by  comparing  the  two  modes 
of  solving  a  problem.  Take,  for  example,  this  problem  :  If 
f  of  a  pound  of  butter  costs  10  cents,  what  will  f  of  a  pound 
cost? 

The  Solution  in  Ilental  Arithmetic.  If  f  of  a  pound  of  but- 
ter costs  10  cents,  3-  of  a  pound  will  cost  ^  of  10  cents,  or  5 
cents,  and  f,  or  1  pound,  of  butter  will  cost  5  times  5,  or  25 
cents.  If  1  pound  of  butter  costs  25  cents,  |  of  a  pound  will 
cost  |-  of  25  cents,  or  Q\  cents,  and  f  of  a  pound  will  cost  3 
times  6^  cents,  or  18f  cents.  The  analytic-synthetic  steps  of 
the  solution  may  be  represented  in  the  following  drawing  of 
physical  steps : 


5 

3"X 

2 

5 


276         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

lb.        cts.  lb.        cts. 

The  Solution  in  Written  Arithmetic.     If  |-  =  10,  f  =  25,  and 

lb.       cts.  cts. 

I  =  18|;  or,  I :  f  =  10  :  answer;  therefore,  IH^^^  =  ^  = 

cts. 

18f .  Whether  solved  by  fractions  or  proportion,  the  economic 
abridgments  and  the  dednctive  reasoning  are  obvious.  In 
the  solution  by  mental  arithmetic  the  analysis  of  the  problem 
allows  no  abridgments,  and  is  the  first  step  in  the  induction 
of  rules. 

The  Preparation  of  Lessons  in  Mental  Arithmetic.  As 
far  as  possible  problems  should  be  written  out  before  the  reci- 
tation. At  all  events,  every  problem  should  be  "  thought  out" 
by  analysis.  The  teacher  and  the  pupils  are  equally  subject 
to  this  requirement.  The  lessons  must,  of  course,  be  short 
enough  to  make  such  preparation  possible. 

The  Recitation  in  Mental  Arithmetic.  Various  methods 
have  been  proposed  and  used.  Among  the  best  ones  are  the 
following : 

The  Common  Method.  The  teacher  reads  a  problem,  assigns 
it  to  some  pupil,  and  requires  him  to  rise,  repeat,  and  solve  it 
without  the  help  of  a  book  or  figures.  It  is  necessary  to  insist 
on  precise  and  concise  language,  and  correct  pronunciation. 
The  method  is  economic,  and,  in  the  hands  of  a  strong  teacher, 
will  be  effective. 

The  Chance  Assignment  Method.  The  number  of  the  prob- 
lem and  the  page  of  the  book  from  which  it  may  have  been 
taken  are  put  on  prepared  slips  of  paper,  and  the  pupils  draw 
papers  by  lot.  The  teacher  reads  a  problem,  announces  the 
number  and  page,  and  expects  the  pupil  that  drew  the  number 
to  rise  and  then  repeat  and  solve  the  problem  as  in  the  common 
method.  This  method  is  superior  to  the  common  method  as 
an  exercise  in  attention. 

The  "  Parts"  Method.  The  teacher  reads  and  assigns  as  in 
the  common  method ;  but  when  the  first  pupil  has  repeated 


AEITHMETIC  277 

the  problem  he  may  assign  it  to  another  pupil,  who,  after 
partly  solving  it,  may  pass  it  to  another,  etc.,  until  finally  it 
has  been  fully  solved.  The  method  is  effective  with  younger 
children  as  a  means  of  holding  their  attention,  and  may  be 
used  for  variety  in  connection  with  other  methods. 

The  Silent  Method.  The  teacher  reads  a  problem  as  in  the 
common  method,  the  whole  class  tries  to  solve  it,  and  when 
time  enough  has  been  allowed,  some  one  is  requested  to  rise, 
repeat,  and  solve,  as  in  the  common  method.  This  method  is 
good  for  variety,  and  with  younger  pupils,  but  requires  a  great 
deal  of  time. 

Board  Work  in  Mental  Arithmetic.  In  connection  with  any 
of  the  preceding  methods,  some  pupils  should  be  required  to 
work  questions  on  the  board.  These  questions  should  be  as- 
signed by  means  of  slips  of  paper  on  which  they  have  been 
copied  beforehand.  Such  board-work  is  a  good  opportunity 
to  introduce  supplementary  problems  and  reviews.  Written 
solutions  in  mental  arithmetic  develop  accuracy  in  thought 
and  language.  The  language  as  well  as  the  thought  should 
be  criticised. 

The  Importance  of  Mental  Arithmetic.  The  method 
known  as  "  mental"  arithmetic  has  the  following  merits :  (1) 
It  is  a  superior  means  of  mental  discipline,  and  (2)  It  is  a 
very  desirable  equipment  for  life. 

The  Discipline  of  Mental  Arithmetic.  (1)  Inasmuch  as  men- 
tal arithmetic  is  analytic  and  inductive,  it  is  a  fine  training  in 
logic.  (2)  Since  the  problem  must  be  repeated  and  solved 
without  a  book,  attention  and  memory  are  brought  into  ener- 
getic exercise.  (3)  The  analytic  process  of  mental  arithmetic 
requires  precise  and  concise  language,  and  thus  adds  one  most 
desirable  power  to  another.  (4)  The  habit  of  analysis  and 
induction,  as  developed  in  mental  arithmetic,  is  the  true  com- 
plement of  written  arithmetic  and  the  door  to  higher  mathe- 
matics. 


278         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Practical  Value  of  Mental  Arithmetic.  In  practical  life 
there  are  many  times  when  the  powers  developed  in  mental 
arithmetic  are  most  serviceable.  The  man  who  is  unable  to 
solve  questions  of  practical  arithmetic  without  pencil  and 
paper  is  often  at  a  disadvantage. 

An  Eloquent  Plea  for  Mental  Arithmetic.  "  No  words  can 
convey  a  full  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  mental  arith- 
metic. Only  those  who  experienced  the  transition  from  the 
old  methods  to  the  new  can  fully  reahze  the  supreme  value 
of  the  study.  Indeed,  we  believe  that  the  method  of  mental 
arithmetic  is  the  greatest  improvement  in  modern  education  ; 
and  the  world  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Warren  Colburn, 
its  author,  which  it  can  never  pay.  Though  there  has  been  a 
recent  reaction  in  public  sentiment  against  the  subject,  we  be- 
lieve that  it  is  merely  a  wave  of  opinion  and  that  it  cannot  be 
permanent.  Mental  arithmetic  is  the  great  source  of  disci- 
pline to  the  power  of  thought  in  our  public  schools.  When 
properly  taught,  it  gives  quickness  of  perception,  keenness  of 
insight,  toughness  of  mental  fibre,  and  an  intellectual  power 
and  grasp  that  can  be  acquired  by  no  other  primary  study.  To 
omit,  therefore,  a  thorough  course  in  mental  arithmetic  in  the 
common  schools,  is  to  deprive  the  pupils  of  one  of  the  princi- 
pal sources  of  thought  power." 

III.  HIGHER  ARITHMETIC. 

The  purpose  in  hand  forbids  an  extended  discussion  of 
higher  arithmetic.  A  mere  outline  is  all  that  our  limits  will 
allow,  and  the  outline  is  respectfully  subjoined  as  a  stimulus 
to  teachers. 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Higher  Arithmetic.  The  ends  in 
view  in  higher  arithmetic  are  as  follows  :  (1)  To  supplement 
the  grammar  school  course  ;  (2)  To  study  such  remotest  rela- 
tions of  arithmetic  as  can  be  better  understood  after  a  course 
in  algebra   and   geometry ;    (3)  To  equip  pupils  with  such 


ARITHMETIC  279 

special  training  in  arithmetic  as  shall  serve  special  needs  of 
life ;  and  (4)  To  develop  such  historical,  scientific,  philo- 
sophic, and  professional  scholarship  in  arithmetic  as  may  be 
deemed  important. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Higher  Arithmetic.  The 
development  method,  as  employed  in  intermediate  arithmetic, 
is  virtually  the  right  method  for  higher  arithmetic.  The 
higher  phases  of  the  subject,  the  special  purposes  in  view,  and 
the  "personal  element"  of  the  teacher,  must  determine  the 
necessary  adjustments.  The  pedagogics  of  arithmetic  is  a 
problem  in  psychology  and  economy,  and  must,  of  course,  be 
studied  from  those  special  stand-points. 

The  Subjects  of  Higher  Arithmetic.  The  course  of 
higher  arithmetic  belongs  to  the  high  school,  normal  school, 
business  college,  etc. 

High  School  Arithmetic.  The  subject  of  arithmetic  should 
not  be  dropped  in  high  schools.  It  should  be  retained  as  a 
means  of  higher  culture  and  special  equipment.  (1)  From 
the  stand-point  of  culture,  a  regular  text-book  should  be  sup- 
plemented with  "test"  problems.  A  course  of  mensuration 
should  be  added  after  geometry,  the  special  purpose  being  to 
investigate  the  origin  of  rules  and  to  acquire  the  power  to 
make  original  rules.  (2)  From  the  stand-point  of  equipment, 
the  high  school  should  offer  a  course  of  commercial  arithmetic 
in  connection  with  book-keeping.  A  thorough  course  in  the 
"  Metric  System"  is  desirable. 

Normal  School  Arithmetic.  The  normal  school  should  offer 
a  course  in  arithmetic  equivalent  to  that  just  mapped  out  for 
high  schools.  The  special  stand-point  of  normal  schools  re- 
quires such  a  course  for  two  reasons  :  (1)  As  a  preparation  for 
the  pedagogics  of  arithmetic ;  and  (2)  As  an  equipment  in 
teaching  arithmetic.  The  history  and  philosophy  of  arithme- 
tic should  be  connected  with  the  pedagogics  of  arithmetic. 
Discovery  of  principles  and  deduction  of  methods  should  be 


280         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  great  aim.  Old  methods  should  be  subjected  to  criticism, 
and  original  methods  derived.  A  course  in  duodecimals  is 
desirable  for  teachers  and  specialists  in  arithmetic. 

IV.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ARITHMETIC 

The  importance  of  arithmetic  is  most  conveniently  consid- 
ered under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Culture  Value  of 
Arithmetic ;  (2)  The  Instruction  Value  of  Arithmetic ;  (3) 
The  Practical  Value  of  Arithmetic ;  and  (4)  The  Training  of 
Teachers  of  Arithmetic. 

The  Culture  Value  of  Arithmetic.  The  detachment  of 
quantity  from  quality  at  once  distinguishes  arithmetic  from 
all  other  sciences.  The  measurement  of  quantities,  and  the 
expression  of  such  measurements  by  means  of  "  numbers/'  are 
the  great  concerns  of  arithmetic.  The  measurement  of  quan- 
tities makes  analysis,  synthesis,  and  comparison  the  necessary 
processes  of  arithmetic.  The  possibilities  and  applications  of 
these  processes  must  be  ascertained  by  the  development  method 
of  study.  Thus  we  see  that  arithmetic  exercises  the  mind  in 
its  most  complex  functions  and  within  a  sphere  sui  generis. 
The  tendency  of  such  exercise  is  to  develop  the  power  of  at- 
tention in  union  with  the  syllogistic  processes.  But,  although 
the  "  intellect"  and  "  will"  are  thus  exercised  somewhat  unfeel- 
ingly, the  "  heart"  learns  to  rejoice  in  "  truths."  There  is  one 
danger  in  the  study  of  arithmetic.  "  The  Committee  of  Fif- 
teen" refers  to  this  danger  as  follows :  "  The  study  of  quan- 
tity, if  carried  to  excess,  may  warp  the  mind  into  a  habit  of 
neglecting  quality  in  its  observation  and  reflection.  As  there 
is  no  subsumption  in  the  quantitative  judgment,  but  only 
equality  or  inequality  (A  is  equal  to  or  greater  or  less  than  B), 
there  is  a  tendency  to  atrophy  in  the  faculty  of  concrete  syllo- 
gistic reasoning  on  the  part  of  the  person  devoted  exclusively 
to  mathematics." 

The  Instruction  Value  of  Arithmetic.     The  knowledge 


ARITHMETIC  281 

of  "  numbers"  is  virtually  equivalent  to  the  intellectual  meas- 
urement of  the  universe ;  it  permits  the  imagination  to  ascend 
and  descend  to  the  utmost  limits  of  space,  to  estimate  the  forces 
of  nature,  and  to  fathom  the  ends  of  eternity ;  it,  therefore, 
emancipates  the  mind  from  its  physical  environments  and  lifts 
it  into  the  atmosphere  of  infinities.  The  lesson  of  immortal- 
ity, as  Pythagoras  saw,  is  forced  upon  the  studious  mind  in 
arithmetic. 

The  Practical  Value  of  Arithmetic.  "  The  Committee 
of  Fifteen"  has  this  to  say  about  the  practical  value  of  arith- 
metic :  "  It  is  the  first  tool  of  thought  that  man  invents  in  the 
work  of  emancipating  himself  from  the  thraldom  to  external 
forces.  For  by  the  command  of  numbers  he  learns  to  divide 
and  conquer.  He  can  proportion  one  force  to  another,  and 
concentrate  against  an  obstacle  precisely  what  is  needed  to 
overcome  it.  Number  also  makes  possible  all  the  other  sci- 
ences of  nature  which  depend  on  exact  measurement  and  exact 
record  of  phenomena  as  to  the  following  items :  order  of  suc- 
cession, date,  duration,  locality,  environment,  extent  of  sphere 
of  influence,  number  of  manifestations,  number  of  cases  of  in- 
termittence.  All  these  can  be  defined  accurately  only  by 
means  of  number." 

The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Arithmetic.  The  respon- 
sibility of  teachers  of  arithmetic  must  be  measured  by  the  im- 
portance of  the  study.  If  arithmetic  is  as  important  to  pupils 
as  just  explained,  it  is  evident  that  teachers  of  arithmetic  need 
the  best  possible  training.  This  training  consists  of  two  items  : 
(1)  Training  in  arithmetic  itself.  This  training  is  needed  in 
the  art  as  well  as  in  the  science  of  teaching  arithmetic.  With- 
out such  proficiency  the  teacher  must  be  a  "  blind  leader  of 
the  blind."  (2)  Training  in  the  principles  and  methods  of 
teaching  arithmetic.  Since  this  topic  was  the  subject  of  the 
present  chapter,  it  is  hoped  that  the  point  in  question  may  be 
evident  without  further  study. 


282         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER    IX. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The  first  requisite  in  ideal  instruction  is  a  definite  concep- 
tion of  the  "  subject"  to  be  taughit.  In  this  chapter  on  geog- 
raphy we  must  therefi)re  inquire  into  the  nature  of  geography 
before  we  try  to  solve  the  problem  of  teaching  geography. 

A.   THE  NATURE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  purpose  of  the  chapter  limits  inquiry  into  the  nature 
of  geography  to  four  topics :  (1 )  The  "  Subject"  of  Geography, 
(2)  The  Psychology  of  Geography,  (3)  The  Relation  of  Geog- 
raphy to  Other  Branches,  and  (4)  The  History  of  Geography. 

The  Subject  of  Geography.  "  Geography,"  as  commonly 
defined,  "  is  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  its 
inhabitants."  The  subject  of  geography,  according  to  this 
definition,  is  (1)  The  earth's  surface,  and  (2)  The  earth's  in- 
habitants. The  earth,  however,  is  the  subject  of  geography 
only  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  "  home  of  man,"  and  man  only  in  so 
far  as  he  is  the  earth's  inhabitant.  But  the  earth,  as  man's 
habitat,  consists  of  land,  water,  atmosphere,  plants,  animals, 
minerals,  and  conditions  of  relation  ;  and  man,  as  the  earth's 
inhabitant,  is  subject  to  changes,  makes  changes  in  his  habitat, 
and  employs  it  as  means  to  ends.  These  phenomena,  accord- 
ingly, constitute  the  "  subject"  of  geography.  This  definite 
conception  of  geography  is  completely  developed  in  Guyot's 
treatise  on  "  The  Earth  and  Man." 

The  Psychology  of  Geography.  The  "  subject"  of  geog- 
raphy is  capable  not  only  of  description,  but  also  of  explana- 
tion. Geography  is,  therefore,  really  a  science.  Strictly  de- 
fined. Geography  is  the  science  of  the  earth  as  marl's  habitat  and 


GEOGRAPHY  283 

of  man  as  the  earth's  inhabitant.  As  a  science,  geography 
must  first  observe  and  then  explain  its  phenomena. 

Observation  in  Geography.  Possibly  there  is  no  other  science 
in  which  observers  are  so  likely  to  trespass  upon  the  domain 
of  related  sciences.  The  observer  in  geography  should  there- 
fore keep  in  mind  this  absolute  requirement,  to  observe  the 
earth  only  as  man's  habitat,  and  man  only  as  the  earth's  in- 
habitant. "Within  these  bounds,  however,  the  student  must 
observe  (with  senses  and  judgment)  every  nook  and  corner  of 
space  and  time,  and  record  his  observations.  When  original 
contribution  to  the  science  of  geography  is  the  end  in  view, 
perceptive  observation  is  imperative  ;  but,  in  the  case  of  pupils 
of  geography,  perceptive  observation  must  for  obvious  reasons 
be  supplemented  by  conceptive  observation. 

Explanation  in  Geography.  Just  as  cumulation  is  the  first 
step  toward  construction  in  building  a  house,  so  observation 
is  only  the  first  stage  in  science.  The  cumulation  of  facts  must 
be  supplemented  by  explanation.  In  other  words,  the  facts  of 
geography  must  be  referred  to  causes,  laws,  and  classes.  The 
process  of  geographical  explanation  begins  with  an  inductive 
inquiry  into  the  relations  in  question,  and  ends  in  deductive 
classification  of  phenomena.  (See  Principles  of  Knowledge.) 
Whether  original  contribution  to  the  science  of  geography,  or 
acquaintance  with  the  constructed  science,  be  the  end  in  view, 
the  explanatory  process  is  essentially  the  same.  The  only  dif- 
ference between  the  geographer  and  the  student  of  geography 
is  this,  that  presumably  the  former  is  able  to  supervise  his 
course,  while  the  latter  is  a  prot6g§  of  supervision. 

Species  of  Geography.  The  subject  of  geography,  as  we 
have  seen,  lies  partly  in  space  and  partly  in  time.  The  phe- 
nomena in  question  are  therefore  (1)  Physical  Phenomena, 
and  (2)  Historical  Phenomena. 

Physical  Geography.  The  description  and  explanation  of 
the   physical   phenomena  of  geography   constitute   Physical 


284         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OP  TEACHING 

Geography,  or  Physiography.  Nature  in  the  form  of  land, 
water,  air,  plants,  animals,  minerals,  and  man,  as  well  as  the 
planetary  relation  of  the  earth,  is  the  subject  of  physical  geog- 
raphy. Thus  it  follows  that  special  problems  of  geology, 
meteorology,  botany,  zoology,  anthropology,  and  astronomy, 
when  viewed  from  the  stand-point  of  geography,  are  also 
special  problems  of  physical  geography.  Astronomical,  or 
Mathematical  geography,  is  often  treated  as  if  it  were  a  third 
species  of  geography  c5ordinate  with  physical  and  political 
geography. 

Political  Geography.  The  description  and  explanation  of 
the  changes  which  man  as  the  earth's  inhabitant  makes  in  his 
habitat,  and  of  the  uses  to  which  he  puts  his  habitat,  constitute 
Historical,  or  Political  Geography.  Accordingly,  political 
geography  treats  of  man's  divisions  of  territory,  his  modes  of 
life,  civilization,  and  activity,  and  the  character  of  the  govern- 
ments which  he  establishes.  Thus  we  see  that  certam  prob- 
lems of  history,  when  viewed  from  the  stand-point  of  geog- 
raphy, become  special  problems  of  political  geography. 

The  Relation  of  Geography  to  Other  Branches.  Inas- 
much as  the  earth  is  the  subject  of  geography  only  in  so  far 
as  it  is  man's  habitat,  and  man  only  in  so  far  as  he  is  the 
earth's  inhabitant,  the  relation  of  geography  to  other  branches 
whose  subject  in  some  aspect  or  other  is  also  the  earth  or  man 
must  be  obvious.  The  earth,  for  example,  is  the  subject  of 
chemistry,  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  consists  of  "  elements  in 
composition."  So,  too,  the  earth  is  the  subject  of  geology, 
botany,  zoology,  mineralogy,  etc.,  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  can 
be  viewed  from  the  special  stand-points  of  these  sciences.  In 
the  same  way,  man  is  the  subject  of  various  sciences,  such  as 
physiology,  psychology,  etc.,  but  only  in  so  far  as  he  can  be 
viewed  from  the  special  stand-points  of  these  sciences.  Thus 
it  follows  that  while  geography  and  many  other  sciences  appar- 
ently have  the  same  subject,  they  really  have  only  certain  as- 


GEOGRAPHY  285 

pects  of  this  subject  for  their  special  domains.  Two  inferences 
are  necessary  :  (1)  Geography  is  an  encyclopsedic  introduction 
to  the  various  sciences  whose  subjects  are  aspects  of  the  earth 
and  man ;  and  (2)  A  knowledge  of  the  sciences  related  to  geog- 
raphy is  requisite  to  a  complete  mastery  of  geography.  (See 
the  Tenth  Principle  of  Knowledge.) 

The  History  of  Geography.  For  the  first  records  of 
geography,  we  must  look  to  the  "  nest  places"  of  civilization, 
i.e.,  to  the  fertile  valleys  and  peninsulas  about  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  "  Here  the  sailor, 
the  traveller,  the  soldier,  brought  together  their  accounts  of 
foreign  lands,  people,  winds,  ocean  currents,  and  apparent 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies."  The  ancient  Egyptians  and 
Phoenicians  knew  only  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  Greek  Homer  (about  900  B.C.)  knew  Asia  Minor,  Phoe- 
nicia, and  Egypt,  but  apparently  was  ignorant  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. "Herodotus  (450  B.C.)  had  travelled  through  Asia 
Minor,  Phoenicia,  Lower  Egypt,  and  Mesopotamia,  which, 
with  his  own  country,  he  has  accurately  described ;  but  he 
knew  very  little  of  the  discoveries  to  the  westward,  and  has 
not  even  mentioned  Rome."  Alexander's  marches  laid  open 
the  way  to  India.  "Eratosthenes  (276-194  B.C.)  began  at 
Alexandria  to  explore  the  heavens  for  the  key  to  mathemati- 
cal geography.  He  also  studied  the  relation  of  irregular  coast- 
lines to  continental  areas,  together  with  the  effects  of  great 
natural  features  upon  climate,  and  used  parallels  and  meri- 
dians in  his  maps  to  locate  important  places."  The  Punic 
Wars  and  the  campaigns  of  Julias  Csesar  made  known  many 
countries.  The  greatest  geographer  of  ancient  times  was  Clau- 
dius Ptolemy  (about  1 50  a.d.).  If  the  claims  be  correct,  New- 
foundland, Nova  Scotia,  and  Martha's  Vineyard  were  dis- 
covered about  1000  A.D.  Then  came  Columbus,  Vasco  de 
Gama,  and  Magellan,  completely  overturning  the  Ptolemaic 
system,  and  forcing  the  scientific  world  to  adopt  the  theory 


286         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  a  solar  system.  "About  1556  a  Flemish  mathematician 
named  Mercator  constructed  the  first  map  of  the  whole  world 
upon  the  projection  which  bears  his  name."  Other  projec- 
tions, known  as  conic,  polyconic,  and  globular,  came  later. 
Humboldt  "was  the  first  to  teach  geographers  to  indicate 
climate  by  means  of  isotherms ;  to  divide  the  world  into  nat- 
ural regions,  basing  the  divisions  upon  natural  features,  for 
showing  the  distribution  of  life ;  to  group  the  plants  into  a 
few  great  families,  and  refer  them  to  climatic  conditions." 
The  great  Hitter  made  geography  "  The  Science  of  the  Earth 
in  Relation  to  Nature  and  the  History  of  Man."  He  studied 
"  the  trends  of  the  great  mountain  systems,  the  comparative 
areas  of  highlands  and  lowlands,  the  proportions  of  continen- 
tal surfaces  to  coast-lines,  the  disposition  of  land  and  water 
areas,  together  with  their  influence  upon  climate,  the  distribu- 
tion of  life,  and  the  intellectual  development  of  the  races." 
Arnold  Guyot,  a  disciple  of  Hitter,  has  done  much  for  geog- 
raphy in  America.  The  earliest  American  text-books  on  geog- 
raphy were  little  more  than  catalogues  of  places,  etc.  By  and 
by  description  and  explanation  were  added.  Among  the  most 
popular  geographies  of  our  times  are  Warren's,  Butler's,  Mit- 
chell's, Appleton's,  Frye's,  and  Redway  and  Hinman's.  For 
a  complete  view  of  the  history  of  geography,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  Professor  Frye's  little  book  "  The  Child  and  Nature," 
from  which  most  of  the  foregoing  details  are  quoted. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  GEOG-RAPHY. 

Three  great  questions  constitute  the  problem  of  teaching 
geography :  (1)  In  what  order  and  to  what  extent  are  the 
subjects  of  geography  to  be  taught  ?  (2)  What  method  of  in- 
struction is  appropriate  to  each  course  ?  and  (3)  How  impor- 
tant is  the  study  of  geography  to  education  ?  These  questions 
will  be  discussed  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  The  Neces- 
sary Courses  in  Geography,  (2)  The  Elementary  Course  in  Ge- 


GEOGRAPHY  287 

ography,  (3)  The  Intermediate  Course  in  Geography,  (4)  The 
Higher  Course  in  Geography,  and  (5)  The  Importance  of  Geog- 
raphy. 

I.  THE  NECESSARY  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  subjects  of  geography  should  be  taken  up  in  the  order 
of  their  dependence  and  complexity.  (See  Principles  of 
Knowledge.)  Progress  from  subject  to  subject,  and  phase  to 
phase,  should  be  adapted  to  the  stages  of  the  pupil's  possibil- 
ity,    (See  the  First  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

Complexity  in  the  Evolution  of  Geography.  The  order 
of  dependence  (see  Principles  of  Knowledge)  in  the  evolution 
of  any  subject  is  absolute.  It  must  accordingly  be  the  task  of 
authors  and  teachers  to  discover  and  follow  this  order  in  their 
books  and  instruction.  It  also  obviously  devolves  on  authors 
and  teachers  to  ascertain  the  stages  of  complexity  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  a  subject,  and  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex in  teaching.  (See  the  Third  and  Fourth  Principles  of 
Knowledge.)  In  geography,  as  in  all  studies,  each  subject 
has  three  distinct  stages  of  complexity,  (1)  The  stage  of  imme- 
diate relations,  (2)  The  stage  of  remoter  relations,  and  (3)  The 
stage  of  remotest  relations. 

The  Stage  of  Immediate  Relations.  The  concrete  phase  of  a 
subject  is  readily  comprehended  when  the  parts  and  qualities 
of  that  which  is  in  question  are  few  and  their  dependence  ob- 
vious to  the  senses.  The  concrete  phase  of  "  slope  and  drain- 
age," for  example,  is  readily  understood  even  by  a  child  when 
the  slope  and  drainage  have  no  obscure  parts.  In  such  cases 
even  the  law  can  be  taught  to  a  child. 

The  Stage  of  Remoter  Relations.  Abstract  phases  of  a  sub- 
ject are  more  difficult  to  comprehend,  especially  if  the  qualities 
of  that  which  is  in  question  are  numerous  and  the  relations  can 
be  illustrated  only  imperfectly.  This  is  the  case  in  the  study 
of  winds,  tides,  currents,  coast-lines,  commerce,  government, 
etc.     Even  when  we  resort  to  illustrations,  such  as  can  be 


288         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

given  by  means  of  relief  globes,  charts,  etc.,  these  subjects  are 
too  complex  for  children. 

The  Stage  of  Remotest  Relations.  Abstract  relations  of  a 
subject  are  very  difficult  to  understand  when  the  parts  and 
qualities  of  that  which  is  in  question  enter  into  complex  com- 
position. It  is  a  most  difficult  problem,  for  example,  to  study 
"  the  trends  of  the  great  mountain  systems,  the  comparative 
areas  of  highlands  and  lowlands,  the  proportions  of  continen- 
tal surfaces  to  coast-lines,  the  disposition  of  land  and  water 
areas,  together  with  their  influence  upon  climate,  the  distribu- 
tion of  life,  and  the  intellectual  development  of  the  races." 

The  Stages  of  the  Pupil's  Possibility.  The  pupil's  pos- 
sibility is  approximately  measured  by  his  capacity  and  oppor- 
tunity (see  the  Fourth  General  Principle  of  Education),  but 
there  are  general  stages  of  possibility  for  every  pupil,  which 
determine  what  phase  of  a  subject  he  should  study.  (See  the 
Second,  Third,  and  Eighth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  Stated 
in  logical  order,  these  stages  are  those  of  (1)  Dependence,  (2) 
Transition,  and  (3)  Independence. 

The  Stage  of  the  PwpiVs  Dependence.  So  long  as  the  pupil 
needs  supervision  in  the  formation  of  his  concepts  and  conclu- 
sions, he  is  a  proteg6  in  geography,  and  must  be  assisted  by 
concrete  guidance,  as  in  object  lessons. 

The  Stage  of  the  Pupil's  Transition.  As  soon  as  the  pupil 
needs  supervision  only  in  case  of  complexities,  or  for  reasons 
of  economy,  he  is  becoming  independent,  and  must  be  required 
to  shift  for  himself.  Books,  maps,  etc.,  must  now  become  reg- 
ular means  of  supplementing  his  observations  and  reflections. 

The  Stage  of  the  Pupil's  Independence.  When  stimulus, 
rather  than  supervision,  is  all  that  the  pupil  needs,  he  must 
be  thrown  almost  altogether  upon  his  own  resources.  Advanced 
texts,  atlases,  cyclopaedias,  etc.,  must  now  become  regular 
meaus,  and  the  recitation  is  hardly  more  than  a  spur  to 
original  investigation. 


GEOGRAPHY  289 

The  Necessary  Courses  in  Geography.  Thus  it  follows 
that  the  necessary  courses  in  geography,  as  in  other  branches, 
are  three :  (1)  The  concrete  course,  in  which  the  relations  of 
the  subjects  are  obvious,  and  much  supervision  necessary. 
This  course  is  termed  the  Elementary  course.  (2)  The  course 
in  which  the  relations  of  the  subjects  are  less  obvious,  and 
supervision  is  less  direct.  This  course  is  termed  the  Interme- 
diate course.  (3)  The  course  in  which  the  relations  are  com- 
plex and  abstract,  and  the  pupil  has  supervisory  power.  This 
course  is  termed  the  Higher  course. 

II.  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  topics  which  at  this  point  deserve  attention  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  (1)  The  ends  in  view,  (2)  The  lesson-method,  (3)  The 
subjects  of  elementary  geography,  and  (4)  Sample  lessons. 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Elementary  Geography.  There 
are  four  ends  in  view  in  ideal  instruction,  (1)  The  develop- 
ment of  concepts,  (2)  The  discovery  of  facts,  (3)  Inductions, 
and  (4)  Deductions. 

The  Development  of  Concepts.  Inasmuch  as  the  subject  of 
geography  lies  partly  in  space  and  partly  in  time,  the  first  task 
in  teaching  geography  is  to  develop  in  the  pupil's  mind  such 
concepts  of  extension  as  position,  direction,  distance,  hour, 
month,  year,  etc.,  and  their  signs  (representation)  on  maps 
globes,  in  books,  etc.  The  neglect  to  perform  this  task  always 
cripples  the  child's  progress. 

The  Discovery  of  Facts.  The  ultimate  object  of  science  is 
the  discovery  of  general  truths,  or  principles ;  but  this  discov- 
ery is  either  unlikely  or  impossible  when  particular  truths,  or 
facts,  have  not  been  discovered  by  the  learner.  (See  the  Fifth 
Principle  of  Knowledge.)  "When,  therefore,  such  general 
truths  as  definitions  and  laws  are  to  be  thought  by  the  pupil, 
he  should  first  think  concrete  cases. 

Inductions.     As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  discovered  facts,  he 

19 


290         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

is  ready  to  think  principles.  Indeed,  it  must  be  obvious  to 
any  one  who  will  think  about  it,  that  pupils  are  not  only 
ready,  but  should  be  required  to  think  the  general  (not  necessa- 
rily the  universal)  as  soon  as  they  have  thought  the  particular. 
When,  for  example,  the  pupil  has  discovered  that  a  mountain 
is  very  high  land,  he  should  be  led  to  think  the  definition,  or 
general  truth,  of  mountains  ;  or,  when  he  has  discovered  that 
a  stream  of  water  flows  down  hill,  he  should  be  led  to  think 
that  all  streams  tend  to  flow  down  hill.  The  teacher  that 
neglects  such  inductions  really  neglects  to  teach. 

Beduetions.  Induction  makes  it  possible  for  the  mind  to 
classify  its  acquisitions,  and  to  know  more  individuals  of  a 
genus  than  one  has  ever  studied.  Such  insight  into  genera 
saves  labor  and  confusion  in  subsequent  thought,  inasmuch  as 
new  individuals  can  be  readily  classified  by  means  of  obvious 
specific  properties.  When,  for  example,  the  pupil  has  learned 
the  principle  that  all  the  rivers  of  some  particular  slope  flow 
into  one  bed,  he  needs  to  know  only  one  thing  about  any  new 
river,  namely,  that  it  belongs  to  that  slope,  to  classify  it  cor- 
rectly in  other  respects  also.  This  ability  to  classify  by  de- 
duction is  the  high  prerogative  of  humanity,  and  the  ultimate 
object  of  ideal  instruction.  When  this  power  has  been  devel- 
oped, science  becomes  art,  and  the  learner,  provided  the  power 
has  also  become  habit,  is  "of  age."  (See  Third  General 
Principle  of  Education.) 

The  Lesson-Method,  of  Elementary  Geography.  The 
tasks  of  elementary  geography  (see  the  preceding  paragraph) 
can  be  accomplished  only  by  requiring  learners  to  study  sub- 
jects with  all  the  possible  functions  of  the  mind  in  logical  suc- 
cession. (See  the  Tenth  Principle  of  Instruction.)  This  re- 
quirement is  virtually  fulfilled  in  what  are  conveniently  termed 
Inductive- deductive  Lessons.  The  conspicuous  steps  of  an  in- 
ductive-deductive lesson  are  as  follows :  (1)  Perception,  (2) 
Conception,  (3)  Representation,  and  (4)  Explanation. 


GEOGRAPHY  291 

Perception.  Inasmuch  as  the  "  subject"  of  geography  lies 
partly  in  space  and  partly  in  time,  the  concrete  quality  of 
which  in  both  cases  is  extension,  perception  is  the  natural  basis 
of  direct  comparisons  in  geography.  Apart  from  actual  per- 
ception, these  comparisons  are  likely  to  resemble  "  beating  the 
air." 

Conception.  In  the  course  of  several  direct  comparisons, 
the  mind,  by  "  selecting  agreements"  (abstraction)  and  think- 
ing them  into  unity  (generalization),  arrives  at  concepts,  or 
general  ideas.  This  complex  process  in  its  entirety  is  termed 
Conception.  It  implies  memory  as  the  means  in  holding  fast 
experiences  and  names ;  and,  in  the  form  of  imagination,  it 
enlarges  the  mental  horizon  in  geography,  thus  completing  the 
mind's  desired  survey  of  space.  The  term  definition  denotes 
two  things  in  this  connection,  (1)  The  process  of  conception 
itself,  and  (2)  The  description  of  a  concept  in  words.  These 
two  things  should  be  combined  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
order  just  given. 

Representation.  Since  the  "  subject"  of  geography  lies  ex- 
tended in  space  and  time,  these  extensions  can  be  physically 
represented.  The  most  realistic  representation  of  geographical 
knowledge  are  sand-moulding  and  clay-modelling,  or  relief 
globes ;  the  most  convenient,  although  the  most  abstract  form 
of  representation,  are  drawings  termed  Maps  and  Globes.  The 
immediate  purpose  of  representation  in  geography  is  (1)  To 
stimulate  observation,  and  (2)  To  supervise  thought.  The 
permanent  function  of  maps  and  globes  is  (1)  To  record  geo- 
graphical observations,  and  (2)  To  serve,  though  imperfectly, 
as  a  substitute  for  observation  of  the  "  subject"  of  geography. 
At  first  only  the  simplest  exercises  should  be  required  of 
pupils.  These  exercises  should,  however,  be  introduced  as 
soon  as  sound  sense  dictates,  and  difficulties  should  be  mastered 
as  fast  as  judgment  and  constructive  skill  can  be  developed. 
Formal  map-drills  should  follow  map-making. 


292         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Explanation.  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  think  causes, 
laws,  and  classes,  so  far  as  he  is  able,  in  connection  with  per- 
ception, conception,  and  representation  in  geography.  Causes, 
laws,  and  classes  can  often  be  understood  by  very  young 
pupils,  if  the  teacher's  illustrations  and  questions  are  skilful. 
Nevertheless,  the  pupil  should  not  be  pushed  beyond  his  "  in- 
terest" in  these  matters.  Indeed,  description  (perception,  con- 
ception, representation)  should  predominate  very  much  over 
explanation  in  elementary  geography.  Deductive  exercises 
should  be  added  in  order  to  bring  geographical  knowledge 
into  real  life. 

a.   THE   SUBJECTS   OF   ELEMENT  A  EY   GEOGEAPHY. 

Elementary  geography  may  begin  the  last  part  of  the  second 
or  the  first  part  of  the  third  school  year,  and  should  cover 
about  three  years.  The  progress  from  subject  to  subject  in 
elementary  geography  should  at  first  be  synthetic  (starting  at 
home),  and,  in  due  time,  it  should  be  analytic.  (See  the  Sec- 
ond and  Fifth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  The  following  out- 
line suggests  the  work  to  be  done,  and  the  order  in  which  to 
develop  the  subjects.  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  study 
a  simple  book,  such  as  Frye's  "  Primary  Geography/'  the 
third  year. 

Position.  Develop  the  concepts  above,  below,  before,  behind, 
right,  left,  etc.  Place  objects  into  the  relations  denoted  by 
these  terms,  require  the  pupils  to  place  objects  into  these  rela- 
tions, and  have  them  locate  objects  in  such  relations. 

Direction.  Develop  the  concepts  East,  West,  North,  South, 
etc.  Require  some  pupil  standing  in  front  of  the  class  to  point 
out  and  face  the  East,  West,  etc.  Have  the  pupils  locate  ob- 
jects, places,  etc.,  in  the  East,  West,  etc.  Place  the  pupils  at 
various  points  in  the  room,  and  lead  them  to  see  the  directions 
(1)  from  some  central  point  (absolute  direction),  and  (2)  from 
each  other  (relative  direction). 


GEOGRAPHY  293 

Distance.  Develop  all  the  concepts  of  linear  measure,  such 
as  length,  breadth,  height,  depth,  etc.  Lead  them  to  know 
inches,  foot,  yard,  rod,  etc.,  by  actual  measurements.  Require 
them  to  divide  lines,  strings,  etc.,  into  halves,  thirds,  etc. 
Have  them  estimate  the  length,  breadth,  height,  etc.,  of  the 
floor,  blackboard,  cellars,  windows,  etc.,  and  then  test  the 
estimates  by  actual  measurements. 

Representation.  Having  acquired  the  ideas  of  position, 
direction,  and  distance,  the  pupil  is  ready  to  make  maps  of  the 
table,  floor,  yard,  field,  etc.,  denoting  positions,  directions,  and 
distances,  by  means  of  dots,  lines,  colors,  etc.  (See  the  First 
and  Third  Principles  of  Knowledge.)  Lead  the  pupils  to  see 
that  a  line  an  inch  long,  for  example,  may  represent  an  edge 
a  foot,  yard,  or  rod  long.  Begin  these  lessons  by  showing  the 
children  how  to  map  the  table-top  on  the  black-board.  Re- 
quire them  to  map  the  table,  floor,  etc.,  on  slates,  board,  etc., 
using  the  adopted  "  scale  of  measurement." 

Surface.  (1)  Lead  the  pupils  to  distinguish  even,  uneven, 
level,  and  sloping  surfaces.  Require  them  to  find  such  surfaces 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  school-house  and  their  homes.  (2)  Lead 
the  pupils  to  distinguish  highlands  and  lowlands.  Develop  in 
succession  the  concepts  of  the  various  species  of  high  land, 
such  as  hill,  mountain,  o-ange,  peak,  etc.  Require  the  children 
to  describe  a  hill,  mountain,  etc.,  introducing  such  terms  as 
base,  slope,  summit,  etc.  In  the  same  way  develop  the  con- 
cepts of  the  various  species  of  low  land,  such  as  meadow,  val- 
ley, prairie,  etc.  If  possible,  imitate  these  forms  in  sand  and 
clay.  Use  illustrative  pictures.  Require  descriptions  in  which 
memory,  imagination,  and  judgment  are  necessary.  Identify 
these  forms  on  maps,  globes,  etc.  Lead  the  pupil  to  reflect  on 
these  forms. 

Water.  Lead  the  pupil  to  distinguish  streams  from  still 
bodies  of  water.  Develop  In  succession  the  concepts  of  the 
various  species  of  streams,  such  as  creek,  brook,  river,  etc.,  to- 


294         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OP  TEACHING 

gether  with  their  sources,  banks,  bed,  current,  etc.  In  the 
same  way  develop  in  succession  such  concepts  as  pond  (together 
with  bay,  strait),  lake,  sea,  ocean,  etc.,  together  with  their  shores, 
bed,  inlets,  outlets,  uses,  etc.  When  possible,  imitate  these 
forms  in  clay  and  by  means  of  the  "  geographical  box."  Use 
illustrative  pictures.  Give  and  require  descriptions  in  which 
memory,  imagination,  and  judgment  are  necessary.  Identify 
all  these  forms  on  globes,  maps,  etc.  Lead  the  pupil  to  reflect 
on  such  questions  as  (1)  What  kind  of  fishes  live  in  the  creek 
which  you  crossed  this  morning  ?  (2)  What  causes  the  cur- 
rent in  a  stream  ?  (3)  Why  do  some  streams  flow  faster  than 
others  ?  (4)  Why  is  it  hard  for  a  fish  to  swim  "  up  stream"  ? 
(5)  What  are  rapids  ?  (6)  Why  is  sea- water  unfit  for  drink- 
ing? 

Land  and  Water.  Teach  other  lessons  on  land  and  water 
in  the  way  just  indicated. 

Climate.  Develop  the  concepts  of  temperature,  moisture, 
wind,  etc.  Lead  them  to  distinguish  climates  as  warm,  cold, 
moderate,  moist,  dry,  etc.,  and  acquaint  them  with  examples. 
Teach  them  to  reflect  on  the  causes  of  various  climates,  and 
lead  them  to  see  how  climate  affects  health,  plants,  animals, 
products,  habits,  etc. 

Soil.  Require  the  pupils  to  handle  sand,  shale,  clay,  loam, 
etc.  Help  them  to  sow  seeds  and  plant  trees  into  the  various 
kinds  of  soil,  and  thus  lead  them  to  distinguish  soil  as  fetiile, 
barren,  etc.  Require  them  to  locate  the  various  soils,  and  to 
reflect  on  their  causes,  such  as  slope,  etc.  Teach  them  some 
effects  of  soils  on  plants,  trees,  etc. 

Productions.  Having  developed  the  conditioning  concepts 
of  climate  and  soil,  lead  the  children  to  discover  the  simpler 
concepts,  facts,  and  relations  of  the  various  productions,  such 
as  flowers,  grasses,  grains,  vegetables,  etc.  The  following  de- 
tails will  suggest  the  work  that  can  be  done,  and  serve  as  a 
rough  outline  to  be  filled  up  as  the  teacher  sees  possible  and 


GEOGEAPHY  295 

appropriate.  (1)  Require  the  pupils  to  name,  distinguish,  and 
locate  the  common  grasses,  grains,  vegetables,  fruits,  trees, 
etc.,  and  to  study  their  habits,  peculiarities,  and  uses.  Tell 
them  about  the  great  prairies  of  the  West,  the  rice-fields  of 
the  South,  the  potato  of  Ireland,  the  coffee  of  Brazil,  the 
oranges  of  Florida,  the  trees  of  California,  etc.  (2)  Require 
the  pupils  to  name,  distinguish,  describe,  and  locate  the  com- 
mon species  of  insects,  birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  and  other  ani- 
mals. Familiarize  them  with  the  characteristic  habits  and 
uses  of  these  animals.  Give  lessons  on  bees,  spiders,  butter- 
flies, fireflies,  grasshoppers,  potato  bugs,  plant  lice,  birds'  nests, 
migration  of  birds,  food  of  birds,  habits  of  fowls,  fishes,  frogs, 
snakes,  monkeys,  etc.  Tell  the  children  about  interesting 
animals  of  other  lands. 

People.  Familiarize  the  pupils  with  the  industries  of 
their  community  and  neighboring  localities.  Require  them 
to  name  these  industries,  the  workers,  their  characteristic  tools, 
products,  etc.  Lead  the  children  to  observe  the  buildings, 
dress,  and  manners  of  people,  and  require  descriptions  in 
which  memory,  imagination,  judgment,  etc.,  are  necessary. 

Races.  Find  opportunities  to  teach  the  races  of  man,  de- 
scribing them,  studying  their  characteristics.  Give  lessons  on 
the  Indians,  Negroes,  Esquimaux,  etc. 

At  this  time,  say  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  study  a  simple  book,  and  greater  stress 
should  be  laid  on  globes  and  maps,  and  the  preceding  lessons 
should  be  reviewed  in  connection  with  the  following  new  sub- 
jects. 

The  Form  of  the  Earth.  Calling  the  pupil's  attention  to 
the  apparent  form  of  the  earth  (see  the  Second  Principle  of 
Instruction),  lead  him  to  think  of  it  as  round  like  a  ball  or  an 
orange,  etc.  Develop  such  proofs  as  (1)  People  have  travelled 
around  the  earth,  (2)  The  horizon  line  is  a  circle,  (3)  The  top 


296         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  an  incoming  ship  is  first  seen,  (4)  Other  proofs.  (See  Red- 
way's  "  Manual  of  Geography.")  Require  pupils  to  think  of 
such  questions  as  the  following :  (1)  Why  do  the  ships  that 
sail  on  the  under  side  of  the  earth  not  fall  off?  (2)  How  does 
the  inside  of  the  earth  look  ? 

Distribution  of  Land  and  Water.  Using  relief  globes, 
other  globes,  and  maps,  lead  the  children  to  observe  (1)  The 
surface  location  of  land  and  water,  (2)  The  contour  of  the 
continents,  (3)  The  primary  and  secondary  continental  reliefs, 
(4)  The  drainage,  (5)  The  relative  proportion  of  land  and 
water. 

Motions  of  the  Earth.  (1)  Develop  the  concepts  of  time, 
such  as  day,  hour,  minute,  week,  month,  year,  as  in  the  exer- 
cises of  arithmetic.  Lead  the  children  to  see  the  use  of 
watches  and  clocks.  Tell  them  about  sun-dials,  etc.  (2)  By 
means  of  a  candle  and  globe,  or  black  ball  with  a  knitting 
needle  as  the  axis,  teach  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
and  its  effect,  i.e.,  day  and  night.  In  the  same  way,  teach  the 
phenomena  of  the  moon,  and  the  lunar  month.  (3)  With  the 
same  means,  taking  care  to  incline  the  axis  properly,  teach  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  the  orbit  of  the  earth, 
the  effect  of  the  earth's  revolution  and  the  inclination  of  its 
axis,  i.e.,  the  seasons,  polar  days  and  nights,  the  location  and 
names  of  the  principal  circles,  the  zones,  together  with  their 
peculiarities  of  climate,  products,  people,  etc.  (4)  After  the 
above  lessons,  and  somewhat  in  connection  with  them,  teach 
the  equator,  latitude,  longitude,  parallels,  meridians,  degrees 
of  longitude,  etc.  Require  the  pupils  to  find  the  latitude 
and  longitude  of  certain  places,  to  locate  places  whose  lati- 
tude and  longitude  are  given,  to  reckon  out  differences  of 
time,  etc. 

Continents.  Give  lessons  in  the  order  of  the  book  used, 
on  continents,  studying  such  subjects  as  position,  contour,  re- 
lief, drainage,  climate,  productions,  etc. 


GEOGEAPHY  297 

Countries  and  Divisions.  After  such  a  general  view  of 
the  continents,  give  lessons  on  the  various  countries,  states, 
etc.,  studying  position,  contour,  relief,  drainage,  soil,  climate, 
products,  people,  political  divisions,  etc. 

Illustrative  Lessons.  In  the  elementary  tasks  of  the  first 
two  years,  the  pupils  are  not  supposed  to  "  prepare  lessons," 
as  in  later  years.  They  should,  however,  be  directed  to  make 
such  observations  as  may  serve  the  purposes  in  hand.  They 
may  also  be  invited  to  gather  such  objects,  plants,  etc.,  as  can 
be  secured  by  them.  This  holds  true  especially  in  "  Nature" 
studies  and  the  "  Industries."  As  a  rule  it  will  devolve  on 
the  teacher  himself  to  gather  the  materials  for  these  elementary 
lessons.  (See  the  Third  and  Fourth  General  Principles  of  Ed- 
ucation.) Some  of  these  lessons,  as  the  teacher  can  judge  for 
himself,  ought  to  be  given  "  out  of  school  hours"  and  "  out  of 
sight  of  school-houses."  The  following  sample  lessons  are 
subjoined  as  suggestions,  and  are  designed  to  illustrate  the 
inductive-deductive  lesson  method  to  which  reference  has 
been  made.  These  illustrations,  however,  are  not  meant  to 
be  "  grooves"  for  teachers,  but  only  as  "  sign-posts"  to  point 
out  the  way.  The  same  lesson-method,  supplemented,  as 
already  indicated,  by  the  study  of  a  simple  book,  is  to  be  con- 
tinued the  third  year. 

A  Lesson  on  Position.  Teacher  (holding  a  book).  Where 
is  the  book,  Robert?  Robert.  It  is  above  your  head.  T. 
Where  is  it  now,  Alice?  Alice.  It  is  under  your  arm.  T. 
Where  is  it  now,  Peter?  Peter.  It  is  in  my  left  hand.  T. 
And  now  ?  P.  In  Mary's  right  hand.  T.  Boys,  let  your  left 
hand  hang  down.  T.  You  may  all  put  your  right  hand  upon 
your  head ;  under  your  left  hand ;  over  it.  T.  Who  sits  to 
your  right,  James  ?  James.  Mary  Jones.  T.  You  may  all 
step  forward ;  backward  ;  to  your  right ;  to  your  left. 

A  Lesson  on  Direction.     Teacher.  Mary,  please  stand  in 


298         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

front  of  the  class.  Point  to  the  place  where  the  sun  rises. 
Turn  your  face  in  that  direction.  The  place  where  the  sun 
rises  is  called  the  East  Where  does  the  sun  rise,  Mary  ?  Mary. 
The  sun  rises  in  the  East.  T.  The  class  may  face  the  East. 
T.  Point  to  where  the  sun  sets,  Mary.  That  place  is  called 
the  West.  Where  does  the  sun  set,  James  ?  James.  In  the 
West.  T.  Now,  Mary,  point  to  the  East  with  your  right 
hand  and  to  the  West  with  your  left  hand.  If  you  should 
now  walk  forward,  you  would  walk  toward  the  North.  T. 
John,  please  point  to  the  North.  T.  If  Mary  should  walk 
backward,  she  would  walk  toward  the  South.  T.  Ellen, 
please  face  the  South.  T.  The  class  may  rise.  Face  the 
East;  the  West;  the  North;  the  South.  T.  At  which  wall 
do  I  point,  Jacob  ?  Jacob.  At  the  North  wall.  At  the  East 
wall.  T.  Mabel,  please  walk  West,  East,  North,  South.  T. 
James,  stand  against  the  North  wall  half  way  from  each  end. 
Ellen,  stand  against  the  South  wall,  etc.  Peter,  stand  against 
the  East  wall,  etc.  Mabel,  stand  against  the  West  wall,  etc. 
T.  John,  what  is  the  direction  from  James  to  Ellen ;  from 
Ellen  to  James ;  from  Peter  to  James  ;  from  Mabel  to  Peter, 
etc. 

A  Lesson  on  Map-Making-.  Teacher.  Over  what  do  I 
move  my  hand,  James  ?  James.  Over  the  table.  T.  Please 
run  your  finger  along  the  North  edge  of  the  table-top.  T.  I 
will  now  draw  a  line  on  the  black-board  for  the  North  edge 
of  the  table-top.  What  have  I  done,  James  ?  T.  Show  the 
class  the  East  edge  of  the  table-top,  John.  T.  What  does  the 
line  that  I  have  just  drawn  represent,  Mary  ?  Mary.  It  rep- 
resents the  East  edge.  T.  This  line?  P.  The  West  edge. 
T.  This  line  ?  P.  The  South  edge.  T.  (placing  an  inkstand 
on  the  table-top).  Where  is  the  inkstand,  Thomas  ?  Thomas. 
It  is  near  the  East  edge  of  the  table.  T.  How  can  this  be 
represented  on  the  board,  Mabel?  Mabel.  By  means  of  a 
picture.     T.  Yes,  Mabel,  or  by  means  of  a  mark  like  this 


GEOGRAPHY  299 

(making  a  dot  or  cross).  T.  Miriam,  take  this  foot-rule,  and 
find  out  how  long  this  desk  is.  Miriam.  It  is  four  feet  long. 
T.  I  will  draw  a  line  to  represent  it  (drawing  a  line  one  foot 
long).  Please  measure  this  line.  Miriam.  It  is  one  foot  long. 
T.  Please  measure  the  width  of  this  desk,  Allen.  Allen.  It 
is  two  feet  wide.  T.  How  long  shall  I  draw  a  line  to  repre- 
sent the  width  of  the  desk,  Thomas  ?  Thomas.  I  can't  tell. 
T.  Who  can  tell  ?  John.  You  drew  a  line  one  foot  long  for 
the  four  feet ;  therefore,  I  think  the  line  should  be  half  as  long 
for  two  feet.  T.  That  is  a  good  answer.  Thomas,  please 
draw  the  line  for  me.  Now  complete  the  picture,  and  make 
marks  to  show  where  the  pencil  and  the  book  are  lying. 
Children,  these  drawings  which  we  have  made  are  called 
maps.  Mollie,  what  is  a  map?  Tell  what  you  think  a  map 
is,  James.  "When  you  take  your  seats,  try  to  make  a  map 
of  your  desk-top  on  your  slate.  To-morrow  you  may  measure 
the  floor  and  draw  it, 

A  Lesson  on  Land  Forms.  Teacher  (moving  the  edge  of 
the  ruler  across  the  table-top).  Is  this  surface  even  or  uneven, 
Morris  ?  Morris.  It  is  even.  T.  (pointing  to  the  folds  of  a 
coat).  What  can  you  say  about  this  surface,  Ruth  ?  Ruth.  It 
is  not  even.  T.  Yes,  or  wneven.  T.  Is  the  floor  even  or  un- 
even ?  Class.  It  is  even.  T.  The  school-yard  ?  Martha.  It 
is  not  as  even  as  the  floor.  Thomas.  I  watched  the  cows  in 
a  very  uneven  field  last  Summer.  T.  Was  the  field  hilly, 
Thomas?  Thomas.  Yes,  sir.  T.  What  do  you  mean? 
Thomas.  Some  places  in  the  field  were  higher  than  the  others. 
T.  Such  high  places,  Thomas,  are  called  hills.  Emma,  what 
is  a  hill.  Emma.  I  think  a  hill  is  high  land.  T.  What  do 
you  think,  Peter?  T.  Do  you  see  that  liigh  hill  over  toward 
the  North  ?  Class.  Yes,  sir.  Mary.  I  see  a  very,  very  high 
hill  way  off.  It  is  covered  with  trees.  Papa  took  us  up  that 
high  hill  last  summer  to  pick  berries.  There  were  big  stones 
there  too.     I  think  James  called  them  rochs.     And  I  saw  a 


300         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

rabbit  run  !  T.  Well  done,  Mary.  Such  very  high  hills  are 
called  mountains.  T.  James,  what  is  a  mountain?  James. 
A  mountain  is  a  very  high  hill.  T.  Yes,  or  a  high  elevation 
of  land  (moving  his  hand  to  show).  T.  When  you  went  down 
to  the  creek  yesterday,  did  you  find  the  creek  on  a  hill,  John  ? 
John.  No,  sir ;  but  I  saw  a  hill  to  my  right  and  another  to 
my  left.  T.  What  shall  we  call  a  low  land  between  two  hills 
or  mountains,  Florence  ?  Florence.  I  think  mamma  calls  it  a 
valley.  T.  That  is  the  right  name.  What  then  is  a  valley  ? 
Florence.  A  valley  is  the  low  land  between  hills  or  mountains. 
T.  Who  can  describe  some  valley  that  you  have  seen  ?  Frank. 
I  think  I  can,  Mr.  Porter.  T.  Try  it,  Frank.  T.  Who  can 
tell  what  use  can  be  made  of  valleys?  T.  To-morrow  we 
will  make  little  hills  and  valleys  with  sand.  Perhaps  you 
will  also  be  ready  to  make  a  map  of  some  valley  that  you 
have  seen. 

A  Lesson  on  Soil.  Having  collected  specimens  of  soil, 
the  teacher  requires  the  pupils  to  handle  and  observe  the  speci- 
mens. T.  Please  tell  us  something  about  this  sand,  Flor- 
ence ?  Florence.  This  sand  is  like  sugar ;  it  is  not  quite  as 
white.  These  little  pieces  (the  teacher  says  "grains")  have 
little  corners  that  hurt  when  they  get  into  your  shoe.  T. 
Herbert,  this  earth  that  I  have  in  my  hand  is  called  clay. 
Please  tell  us  something  about  it.  Have  you  ever  tried  to 
make  "  mud-pies"  ?  T.  Katie,  press  this  lump  of  clay  into 
the  shape  of  a  ball.  Thomas,  press  this  lump  into  the  shape 
of  a  little  tea-cup.  T.  Why  does  your  mother  not  plant  flowers 
in  sand  or  clay  ?  Tillie.  I  know ;  they  would  not  grow.  T. 
That  is  right ;  sand  and  clay  are  not  good  soil,  that  is,  earth, 
in  which  to  sow  seeds,  etc.  Good  soil  is  c&lled  fertile  soil,  and 
poor  soil  is  called  barren  soil.  Nellie,  where  does  your  mother 
plant  peas  ?  Nellie.  She  plants  them  in  the  garden.  T.  Why  ? 
Nellie.  I  think  it  must  be  because  the  garden  earth  is  good — 
I  mean,  fertile — soil.     T.  Children,  look  at  this  seed.     I  will 


GEOGRAPHY  301 

sow  some  of  it  in  this  box  and  some  in  this  one.  Now,  please 
observe  every  day  what  will  happen,  write  down  whatever  you 
see,  and  then  I  will  ask  you  to  tell  me  all  that  you  can  learn 
about  these  things. 

A  Lesson  on  Plants.  Teacher.  Please  examine  these  plants 
(handing  specimens  to  the  members  of  the  class).  Who  knows 
the  name  of  his  plant  ?  Frank.  Mine  is  a  potato  plant.  Emma. 
Mine  is  a  turnip.  T.  Who  knows  the  name  of  Mary's  plant  ? 
(There  is  no  reply.)  It  is  a  parsnip.  I  will  write  the  name. 
How  can  you  tell  these  plants  apart  from  each  other,  George  ? 
(The  answers  are  to  be  supplied,  and  should  include  form, 
color,  size,  weight,  etc.)  T.  Where  do  these  plants  grow? 
T.  For  what  are  they  good  ?  T.  Tell  what  you  know  about 
potatoes,  Frank.  T.  Tell  what  you,  etc.,  know.  T.  How 
does  the  farmer  take  potatoes  to  market?  T.  How  does 
mother  prepare  turnips  for  the  table,  Jane?  T:  Which  do 
you  like  better,  Morris  ?  Why  ?  T.  When  do  farmers  plant 
potatoes?     How?     Why? 

A  Lesson  on  the  Form  of  the  Earth.  Teacher  (standing 
with  the  class  on  the  school  grounds).  Does  the  earth  as  far 
around  as  you  can  see  (giving  directions)  look  as  flat  as  a  floor  ? 
(The  answers  are  to  be  supplied  by  the  student- teacher.)  T. 
Does  it  look  like  this  (running  his  finger  around  the  edge  of  a 
nickel)?  T.  (holding  up  a  ball  or  an  orange).  The  earth 
may  seem  to  you  to  be  somewhat  flat  and  round  like  this 
nickel,  but  it  really  is  round,  almost  like  this  ball.  If  the 
earth  is  round  like  this  ball,  what  can  I  do  if  1  start  here 
(pointing  to  some  marked  spot)?  Minnie.  You  can  go  all 
around  the  ball  and  come  back  to  the  place  where  you  started. 
T.  That  is  just  what  has  been  done  (telling  and  illustrating 
fully).  T.  To-morrow  we  will  study  some  other  proofs  that 
the  earth  is  round.  You  may  now  go  to  your  seats  and  write 
what  we  have  learned  about  the  shape  of  the  earth.  I  will  ask 
you  to  read  your  stories  when  we  recite  to-morrow. 


302         PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

A  Lesson  on  the  Seasons.  Teacher.  In  what  time  of  the 
year  do  the  cherry-trees  blossom,  Jennie  ?  Jennie.  In  Spring. 
(This  answer  is  probable.)  T.  When  do  the  farmers  make 
hay,  Ralph  ?  Ralph.  In  Summer.  (Develop  the  concepts  of 
Autumn  and  Winter  by  similar  questions,  and  elicit  descrip- 
tions.) T.  These  four  times  of  the  year  are  called  seasons. 
How  many  seasons  has  a  year,  class  ?  Class.  Four  seasons. 
T.  Name  them,  Howard.  T.  What  is  meant  by  the  name 
season,  Sallie?  Sallie.  The  different  times  of  the  year  are 
called  seasons.  T.  How  do  the  four  seasons  of  the  year  dif- 
fer from  each  other,  Mabel  ?  T.  What  causes  day  and  night, 
Howard?  (A  lesson  on  day  and  night  is  presupposed.) 
Howard.  The  earth  revolves  on  its  axis,  and  the  side  toward 
the  sun  is  day,  but  the  side  away  from  it  is  called  night.  T. 
The  seasons  are  caused  somewhat  in  the  same  way.  Let  me 
show  you  (carrying  a  globe  around  the  light  of  a  candle,  taking 
care  to  incline  the  axis  properly,  etc.).  This  is  the  Summer 
side  (stopping  at  the  right  point).  Tell  me  what  you  see, 
Mabel.  Mabel.  I  see  that  the  light  falls  right  against  this 
spot  (pointing  it  out).  It  is  Pennsylvania.  T.  What,  then, 
is  the  season  in  Pennsylvania  when  the  sun  shines  upon 
it  that  way?  Ralph.  It  is  Summer.  (Develop  the  other 
seasons  in  the  same  way,  asking  questions  to  bring  out  the 
points.  Do  not  introduce  too  many  difficulties  at  once.  Go 
slowly.) 

Lessons  on  the  other  topics  indicated  in  the  catalogue  of 
subjects  should  be  given  in  the  same  way.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  preceding  sample  lessons  are  only  sug- 
gestions. The  individual  teacher  must  ever  strive  to  be 
himself  as  much  as  possible,  and  to  adapt  himself  to  his  con- 
crete situations.  The  lessons  on  mathematical  or  astronom- 
ical geography  should  not  be  taken  up  too  soon,  and  when 
taken  up  they  should  be  carefully  planned  beforehand  by  the 
teacher. 


GEOGRAPHY  303 

III.  THE  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  topics  that  deserve  attention  in  this  section  are  as  fol- 
lows :  (1)  The  Ends  in  View  in  Intermediate  Geography ;  (2) 
The  Lesson-Method ;  (3)  The  Subjects ;  (4)  The  Preparation 
of  Lessons ;  and  (5)  The  Eecitation. 

The  Ends  in  View  in  Intermediate  Geography.  There 
are  four  ends  in  view  in  intermediate  geography  lessons :  (1) 
The  Enlargement  of  Concepts;  (2)  The  Multiplication  of 
Facts ;  (3)  Inductions ;  and  (4)  Deductions. 

The  Enlargement  of  Concepts.  The  cumulative  process  in 
the  generalizations  of  the  elementary  lessons  in  geography  is  in- 
complete for  several  reasons  :  (1)  The  stages  of  the  pupil's  de- 
velopment are  not  equal  to  the  tasks  of  complex  generaliza- 
tion; and  (2)  The  mass  of  experiences  is  insufficient  for 
complete  generalization.  All  the  elementary  concepts  of  geog- 
raphy should  therefore  be  developed  as  fully  as  possible  in  the 
intermediate  course.  Such  a  concept  as  drainage,  for  example, 
should  now  be  enlarged  by  comparing  a  greater  number  of 
cases  and  cases  that  are  complex.  (See  the  First  and  Third 
Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Multiplication  of  Facts  in  Intermediate  Geography .  It 
is  evidently  impossible  for  a  child  to  learn  many  complex  facts 
of  geography  in  three  or  four  years.  But,  in  order  to  think 
the  greater  truths  of  geography,  there  are  two  requisites  :  (1) 
The  mind  must  compare  a  large  number  of  facts ;  and  (2)  The 
facts  to  be  compared  must  have  matured  concepts  for  subjects 
and  predicates.  If,  therefore,  the  pupil  is  not  required  to  com- 
pare many  facts,  the  definitions  and  principles  at  which  he  ar- 
rives will  be  weakly  supported,  and  if  he  is  not  required  to 
compare  complex  facts,  the  generalizations  which  he  attempts 
will  be  inferior  conquests.  In  accordance  with  this  require- 
ment pupils  should  observe  many  individuals  before  they  frame 
a  final  definition  of  a  continent,  etc.,  and  to  compare  complex 


304         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

individuals  before  they  attempt  to  think  complex  systems  of 
rivers,  winds,  currents,  etc.  (See  the  Second  and  Tenth  Prin- 
ciples of  Instruction.) 

The  Inductions  of  Intermediate  Geography.  As  suggested 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  the  inductions  of  intermediate  ge- 
ography should  extend  to  such  remote  relations  as  will  tend 
to  emancipate  the  pupil.  (See  the  Eighth  Principle  of  Instruc- 
tion.) In  accordance  with  this  requirement,  intermediate  pupils 
learn  the  principles  of  continental  drainage  as  well  as  those  of 
neighborhood  drainage,  the  principles  of  continental  distribu- 
tion of  life  as  well  as  those  of  limited  areas,  etc. 

The  Deductions  of  Intermediate  Geography.  Inasmuch  as 
the  first  requisite  in  valid  deduction  is  a  legitimate  major  pre- 
mise, the  deductions  of  intermediate  geography,  as  in  all  grades, 
must  begin  where  induction  ends.  Within  this  limitation,  how- 
ever, deduction  should  follow  every  induction.  Obedience  to 
this  requirement  will  not  only  be  corrective,  but  the  habit  will 
in  time  emancipate  the  learner  from  the  common  distraction  of 
particulars,  and  place  him  in  the  centre  of  his  geographical 
survey.  This  is  the  supreme  end  in  science.  (See  the  Eighth 
Principle  of  Instruction.) 

The  Lesson-Method  of  Intermediate  Geography.  In- 
asmuch as  the  tasks  to  be  performed  are  the  same,  except  that 
they  are  more  complex,  the  inductive- deductive  plan  already 
outlined  and  illustrated  in  elementary  geography  is  to  be  con- 
tinued in  connection  with  such  modifications  as  the  nature  of 
the  subjects  may  demand.  (See  the  Fifth  Principle  of  Instruc- 
tion.) The  text-book,  as  well  as  the  supplementary  work, 
should  be  a  "  balance"  of  description  and  explanation.  (See 
the  First  Principle  of  Instruction.)  More  time  should  be  de- 
voted to  map-drawing,  and  the  "  constructive"  method  should 
be  combined  with  the  "  imitative"  method.  (See  the  Sixth  and 
Seventh  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

Intermediate  Map-Drawing.     (1)  The  importance  of  map- 


GEOGRAPHY  305 

drawing  as  a  stimulus  to  close  observation  is  obvious.  It  fol- 
lows, (a)  that  geographical  knowledge  will  be  more  perfect, 
and  (6)  that  memories  will  be  more  persistent.  (See  the  Laws 
of  Mental  Activity.)  (2)  The  intermediate  pupil  should  be 
required  to  represent  as  truly  as  possible  the  real  features  and 
proportions  of  the  surfaces  to  be  drawn.  Inasmuch  as  this 
task  necessitates  a  powerful  effort  of  imagination,  there  will  be 
two  results,  (a)  Interest  in  geography  will  be  promoted,  and 
(6)  The  phenomena  represented  will  be  better  understood.  (3) 
Two  species  of  map-drawing  are  to  be  recommended.  First, 
the  pupil  should  be  required  to  observe  the  features  to  be  rep- 
resented, and  then  to  draw  from  memory.  Second,  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  measure  the  proportions  to  be  repre- 
sented, and  then  to  draw  by  "  scale."  The  latter  exercise  is 
the  proper  supplement  of  the  former  from  the  stand-point  of 
culture ;  it  also  prepares  the  pupil  to  interpret  and  appreciate 
maps  and  globes.  All  cumbersome  systems  of  "triangulation," 
etc.,  are  to  be  avoided  for  obvious  reasons.  The  pupil  that  is 
mature  enough  for  constructive  drawing  should  be  required  to 
draw  the  Mercator  projections  (see  page  286),  and  then,  since 
they  are  more  accurate,  the  conic  and  spherical  projections. 
These  projections  of  parallels  and  meridians  are  simpler  in 
the  end,  and  decidedly  more  reasonable.  (4)  The  subjects  of 
intermediate  map-drawing  are  somewhat  as  follows :  (a)  The 
continents,  beginning  with  the  simplest  one ;  (6)  The  pupil's 
county  and  State ;  (c)  The  New  England  group  ;  (<^)  The 
Middle  States  group  ;  (e)  The  Southern  States  group  ;  (/)  The 
States  in  the  order  in  which  the  book  takes  them  up  ;  (g)  Other 
countries.  (5)  The  drawings  should,  of  course,  represent  at 
first  principally  the  contour,  relief,  and  drainage,  but  later  on, 
as  fast  as  the  pupil  becomes  acquainted  with  the  surface  which 
he  has  represented,  he  should  be  required  to  represent  also  the 
distribution  of  plants,  animals,  races,  manufactures,  etc. ;  the 
location  of  cities  ;  the  routes  of  commerce ;  the  climatic  belts, 

20 


306         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

etc.  Studied  in  this  way,  geography  will  become  very  realistic 
and  practical.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  an  intelligent  teacher 
can  be  satisfied  with  less  than  this  work.  In  order  to  succeed 
in  these  tasks,  the  teacher  must,  of  course,  study  some  excellent 
system  of  map-drawing. 

The  Subjects  of  Intermediate  Geography.  (1)  The 
course  in  intermediate  geography  should  cover  about  four 
years,  the  period  corresponding  to  the  grammar-school  life  of 
the  pupil.  (2)  The  subjects  to  be  studied  are  virtually  the 
same  as  in  elementary  geography,  only  that  the  "  individuals" 
are  more  complex  and  the  "relations"  more  remote.  The 
order  of  the  subjects,  as  well  as  their  full  enumeration,  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  text-book  used.  Professor  Frye's  "  Interme- 
diate Geography"  is  possibly  one  of  the  best  in  the  market. 
(3)  Stress  should  be  laid  on  the  "  interrelation"  of  physical 
and  political  facts.  Obedience  to  this  requirement  will  de- 
velop intelligence  in  geographical  study,  and  thus  brighten  the 
pupil's  pathway,  while  at  the  same  time  it  honors  "truth." 
This  interrelation  is  strongly  emphasized  in  Professor  Frye's 
book. 

Preparation  of  Lessons.  Whenever  it  is  necessary,  the 
teacher  should  pave  the  way  for  the  lessons  which  he  proposes 
to  assign.  This  he  can  do  by  means  of  illustrations,  apparatus, 
cabinet  specimens,  photographs,  etc.,  and  by  referring  the  pupils 
to  supplementary  texts  as  well  as  reference  books.  The  pupil 
should  be  required  to  study  a  lesson  assigned  in  his  text-book, 
to  compare  it  with  other  texts,  to  use  reference  books,  diction- 
ary, etc.,  and  to  draw. 

The  Recitation  in  Intermediate  Geography.  (1)  The 
pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  bring  his  book  to  class,  and  the 
teacher  should  not  use  a  book,  except  as  a  supplement  in  re- 
views. (2)  The  recitation  should  be  partly  written  and  partly 
oral,  both  in  the  interest  of  language  and  culture.  Sometimes 
it  may  serve  a  special  purpose  to  make  the  recitations  wholly 


GEOGEAPHY  307 

written  or  wholly  oral,  or  to  alternate  oral  and  written  recita- 
tions. (3)  The  inductive  system  of  questioning  should  be 
used  in  developing  concepts,  definitions,  and  principles.  The 
preparation  of  the  lesson  can  be  tested  by  combining  catechet- 
ical questions  with  the  pupil's  discussion  of  topics.  (See 
Frye's  "  Outline.")  The  topical  method  should  predominate 
in  reviews.  Great  enthusiasm  can  be  cultivated  in  the  class 
by  means  of  occasional  talks  on  geography.  This  is  the  great 
opportunity  of  the  scholarly  teacher.  Occasionally,  too,  the 
regular  course  should  be  interrupted  by  a  recitation  on  current 
history.  Such  a  lesson,  if  it  be  brought  into  its  geographical 
relations,  will  reveal  to  the  pupil  the  physical  basis  of  history. 
The  pupils  should  be  invited  to  criticise  the  language,  etc.,  of 
recitations,  and  to  discuss  interesting  questions.  (4)  Drills  on 
relief  globes  and  outline  maps  should  precede  and  accompany 
the  lessons  of  the  text-book.  The  ends  in  view  in  such  drills 
are  (a)  to  present  geographical  phenomena  to  the  imagination ; 
and  (6)  to  pave  the  way  through  the  imagination  for  the  under- 
standing and  memory.  In  order  to  accomplish  these  tasks, 
the  various  features  must  not  only  be  "  pointed  out,"  but  de- 
scribed and  studied.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  cultivate 
the  pupil's  interest  in  these  drills.  (5)  Recitations  thus  con- 
ducted will  be  in  accordance  with  the  "  principles  of  instruc- 
tion." 

IV.  THE  HIGHER  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  purpose  of  this  treatise  limits  the  treatment  of  the 
higher  course  in  geography  to  the  following  topics :  (1)  The 
Tasks  of  Higher  Geography ;  (2)  The  Gradation  of  the 
Course ;  and  (3)  The  Methods  of  Work. 

The  Tasks  of  Hig-her  Geography.  The  tasks  of  higher 
geography  are  as  follows :  (1)  To  observe  the  most  complex 
"  individuals"  (subjects)  and  to  study  the  "  remotest"  relations 
(connections)  in  geography  ;  (2)  To  develop  teachers  of  geog- 
raphy ;  and  (3)  To  develop  geography,  i.e.,  to  contribute  to 


308         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  "  science"  of  geography.  The  first  task  is  to  be  attempted 
in  high  schools  and  colleges,  and  in  the  interests  of  scientific 
culture ;  the  second  task  belongs  to  Normal  Schools ;  and  the 
third  to  the  University.  (See  the  First,  Second,  Third,  and 
Ninth  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Gradation  of  the  Higher  Geography  Course. 
There  are  three  stages  in  the  course  of  higher  geography,  (1) 
The  High  School  aud  College  Course ;  (2)  The  Normal  School 
Course  ;  and  (3)  The  University  Course. 

High  School  and  College  Geography.  In  the  elementary 
and  intermediate  courses,  the  most  complex  physical  individ- 
uals (subjects)  and  the  remotest  relations  were  beyond  the 
pupil's  power.  In  the  high-school  period  he  becomes  mature 
enough  to  attempt  an  ordinary  text-book  on  "  physical"  geog- 
raphy. In  the  college  period  he  can  take  up  "  comparative" 
geography.  Guyot's  "  Earth  and  Man"  and  Ritter's  "  Com- 
parative Geography"  are  appropriate  texts. 

Nonnal  School  Geography.  The  Normal  School  ought  to 
provide  courses  in  (1)  Political  Geography,  (2)  Physical  Geog- 
raphy, and  (3)  The  Pedagogics  of  Geography.  The  texts  of 
Guyot  and  Sitter  should  be  supplementary,  and  Frye's  "  The 
Child  and  Nature"  deserves  the  most  careful  study. 

University  Geography.  The  University  should  provide 
courses  in  (1)  Comparative  Geography,  (2)  The  Correlation  of 
Geography  and  History,  and  (3)  Original  Investigation. 

The  Methods  of  Higher  Geography.  (1)  The  sources 
of  information  in  higher  geography  should  be  multiplied  as 
much  as  possible.  (2)  The  strictest  logic  should  pervade  both 
preparation  and  recitation.  (3)  The  "science-method,"  i.e., 
the  "laboratory"  method,  must,  of  course,  predominate  in 
the  university  work  in  geography. 


GEOGRAPHY  309 

V.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

Perhaps  no  subject  in  the  public  school  curriculum  has 
greater  merits  as  an  educational  means.  (See  the  Report 
of  the  "  Committee  of  Fifteen.")  Four  points  deserve  our 
present  consideration,  (1)  The  Culture  Value  of  Geography  ; 
(2)  The  Instruction  Value  of  Geography  ;  (3)  The  Practical 
Value  of  Geography ;  and  (4)  The  Training  of  the  Geogra- 
phy Teacher. 

The  Culture  Value  of  Geography.  The  nature  of  the 
subject  and  the  necessary  lesson-method  call  into  vigorous  ser- 
vice all  the  functions  of  the  mind.  (The  student  of  methods 
should  be  required  to  show  the  details  of  this  truth.) 

The  Instruction  Value  of  Geography.  The  facts  and 
truths  of  geography  are  not  only  very  interesting  in  them- 
selves, but,  by  reason  of  their  bearing  on  other  studies  and 
on  the  happiness  of  man,  they  deserve  also  to  be  a  part  of 
thorough  scholarship. 

The  Practical  Value  of  Geography.  The  study  of  geog- 
raphy conies  into  direct  connection  with  industry,  commerce, 
travel,  political  transactions,  general  intelligence,  etc.  (The 
student  of  methods  should  be  required  to  work  out  the  details 
of  this  problem.) 

The  Training  of  the  Geography  Teacher.  Inasmuch  as 
the  possibilities  of  geography  are  so  great,  the  teacher's  re- 
sponsibility must  be  proportionally  great.  In  order  to  per- 
form his  tasks  with  justice  to  the  subject  and  with  satisfaction 
to  himself,  a  twofold  training  is  necessary  :  (1)  A  training  in 
the  "  subject"  of  geography ;  and  (2)  A  training  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  teaching  geography.  These  two  prep- 
arations should,  of  course,  go  hand  in  hand  as  true  comple- 
ments. 


310         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


CHAPTER    X. 

HISTORY. 

Inasmuch  as  the  first  requisite  in  ideal  instruction  is  a 
definite  conception  of  the  branch  to  be  taught,  this  chapter 
must  be  an  inquiry  into  (1)  The  Nature  of  History,  and  (2) 
Instruction  in  History. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  HISTORY. 

The  nature  of  history  is  conveniently  considered  under  the 
following  heads:  (1)  The  "Subject"  of  History;  (2)  The 
Psychology  of  History ;  and  (3)  The  History  of  History. 

I.  THE   "SUBJECT"   OF  HISTOEY. 

In  the  same  sense  as  plants  are  the  subjects  of  botany,  events 
are  the  subjects  of  history. 

"  History"  vs.  "  Natural  History."  In  its  widest  appli- 
cation, history  is  the  study  of  all  events,  impersonal  as  well 
as  personal.  The  differences  between  such  impersonal  events 
as  the  life  of  a  plant  or  an  animal,  and  such  personal  events 
as  the  career  of  a  man  or  the  achievements  of  a  nation,  are  so 
great  as  to  justify  the  division  in  history  commonly  denoted 
by  the  terms  "  Natural  History"  and  "  History."  Only  those 
events  in  which  persons  are  in  question,  such  as  the  career  of 
individuals,  the  development  of  institutions  (schools,  churches, 
states,  commerce,  etc.),  the  progress  of  civilization,  etc.,  consti- 
tute the  subject  of  history  in  its  strictest  sense. 

II.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  HISTORY. 

There  are  two  tasks  in  history :  (1)  The  ascertainment  of 
facts,  and  (2)  Inquiry  into  the  relations  of  facts.  Therefore, 
the  necessary  processes  in  history  are  (1)  Observation,  and  (2) 


HISTORY  311 

Explanation.  (See  the  Fifth  Principle  of  Knowledge  and 
the  Second  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

Observation.  The  facts  of  history  are  known  (1)  By  one's 
own  observation,  i.e.,  by  direct  observation  ;  and  (2)  Through 
the  medium  of  other  observers,  i.e.,  by  indirect  observation. 

Direct  Observation.  The  witness  of  an  event  ascertains 
facts  by  means  of  judgment  combined  with  perception.  A 
general,  for  example,  knows  facts  by  means  of  his  senses. 
This  mode  of  observation  is  termed  Direct  Observation.  The 
reliability  of  direct  observation  depends  on  two  factors,  (1) 
The  nature  of  the  fact,  and  (2)  The  character  of  the  witness. 
An  ordinary  observer  may  correctly  ascertain,  simple  facts,  but 
only  an  expert  can  ascertain  the  facts  in  complex  events.  A 
reporter,  for  example,  might  correctly  observe  the  transactions 
of  a  skirmish,  while  only  the  initiated  commander  could  fully 
observe  the  features  of  a  campaign.  In  any  case,  prejudice 
vitiates  the  process  of  observation. 

Indirect  Observation.  Authors  of  treatises  on  history  are 
rarely  actual  witnesses  of  events.  They  must  ascertain  facts 
through  the  medium  of  witnesses  or  their  records.  This  mode 
of  ascertaining  the  facts  of  history  is  termed  Indirect  Obser- 
vation. Indirect  observation  presupposes  (1)  The  competence 
of  witnesses,  and  (2)  The  credibility  of  documents.  The  in- 
competence and  prejudice  of  witnesses  and  the  credulity  of 
authors  creep  so  readily  into  the  records  of  events,  that  all 
history  has  been  called  "  a  lie."  This  charge  is  obviously  too 
strong,  but  it  emphasizes  the  difficulty  of  the  historian's  tasks 
when  he  must  ascertain  facts  indirectly. 

Explanation.  Inquiry  into  the  relations  of  events  is 
termed  Explanation.  The  two  tasks  of  explanation  are  (1) 
The  ascertainment  of  laws  (the  invariableness  in  causes  and 
effects)  ;  and  (2)  Prevision  in  accordance  with  laws.  The 
necessary  processes  (see  the  Fifth  Principle  of  Knowledge  and 
the  Tenth  Principle  of  Instruction)  are  (1)  Induction  and  (2) 


312         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Deduction.    The  former  process  makes  history  a  science  ;  the 
latter  reduces  it  to  practical  rules  of  life. 

Induction  in  History.  Two  features  of  induction  in  history- 
deserve  special  attention : 

(1)  The  complexity  of  the  task  is  very  great.  Facts  must 
be  ascertained  before  laws  can  be  discovered.  (See  the  Fifth 
and  Sixth  Principles  of  Knowledge.)  This  preparatory  ascer- 
tainment of  facts  is  a  difficult  task  (see  preceding  paragraph)  ; 
but  a  greater  difficulty  presents  itself  in  the  "  second  premise" 
of  the  inductive  argument.  In  the  following  syllogism^  for 
example,  the  second  premise  is  very  bold : 

The  Romans  and  other  people  rebelled  against  oppression; 

These  nations  represent  human  nature ; 

Therefore  all  nations  will  rebel  against  oppression. 

The  variety  of  conditions  to  which  the  nations  of  different 
lineage,  centuries,  and  places  are  subject  by  reason  of  religious, 
social,  political,  physical,  and  other  differences,  makes  it  seem- 
ingly impossible  to  foreknow  what  a  people  will  do  against 
oppression.  That  the  task  is  not  r,  nlly  impossible  is  assumed 
on  two  grounds,  (a)  The  remarkable  uniformity  in  human 
nature;  and  (6)  The  cumulative  force  of  examples. 

(2)  The  complexity  of  the  task  of  ascertaining  laws  in  his- 
tory, as  well  as  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  such  ascertain- 
ment, though  its  success  has  thus  far  been  only  partial,  appear 
in  the  fact  that  there  are  three  distinct  theories  of  history, 
(a)  The  materialistic  theory,  briefly  stated,  is  that  events  are 
the  direct  effects  of  man's  conditions.  This  theory  fails  to  do 
justice  to  God  and  man  as  causes  of  events  ;  it  virtually  de- 
nies that  freedom  is  an  endowment  of  mind,  (6)  The  theistic 
theory,  that  events  are  the  direct  workings  of  God,  also  fails 
to  do  justice  to  the  character  of  God,  and  ignores  man's  ob- 
vious participation  in  events,  (c)  The  spiritualistic  theory,  that 
events  are  acts  of  mind,  assumes  that  God  permits  and  partici- 
pates in  events,  and  that  man's  conditions  are  the  stimuli  in 


HISTOEY  313 

events.  Inasmuch  as  this  theory  does  justice  to  God's  charac- 
ter, and  gives  a  consistent  account  of  human  nature  in  its  re- 
lation to  circumstances,  it  is  obviously  the  true  explanation  of 
history.  On  account  of  the  many  factors  that  enter  into  the 
problem,  the  full  development  of  explanatory  history  (philos- 
ophy of  history)  will  require  centuries  ;  but  even  now  this 
philosophy  is  fast  becoming  the  realized  dream  of  historians, 
and,  in  time,  it  will  be  matured  into  as  exact  a  system  as 
astronomy,  geology,  and  biology. 

Deduction  in  History.  Two  features  of  deduction  in  his- 
tory deserve  special  attention : 

(1)  It  is  possible  to  reckon  out  the  exact  course  of  any  fu- 
ture cannon-ball  because  we  know  the  forces  that  enter  into  its 
composition,  but  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  foreknow  events  in 
history,  because  we  do  not  know  exactly  the  moral  momentum, 
gravity,  friction,  etc.,  that  will  enter  into  human  aifairs.  These 
differences  in  the  conditions  of  events  are  so  great  as  to  make 
prevision  difficult  even  for  such  experts  as  political  leaders. 

(2)  To  many  great  thinkers  this  difficulty  in  history  seems 
insurmountable.  But  the  supposition  that  prevision  in  history 
is  impossible  seems  too  sweeping ;  it  fails  to  account  for  the 
common  conviction  that  history  as  experience  is  "  the  best 
teacher."  This  conviction  is  the  practical  argument  in  favor 
of  history  as  a  branch  of  study  in  our  schools.  Although 
such  prevision  is  not  identical  with  prophecy,  it  serves  a  very 
practical  purpose  in  the  education  of  a  citizen. 

Definition  of  History.  Observation,  induction,  and  de- 
duction are,  accordingly,  the  essential  processes  in  history. 
But  these  processes,  together  with  a  systematic  statement  of 
results,  constitute  science.  Th^efore  history  is  a  science.  In- 
asmuch as  events  are  the  "  subject"  of  history,  it  is  completely 
defined  as  the  science  of  events. 

Species  of  History.  Various  convenient  divisions  of  the 
task  of  history  are  possible.     Thus  arise  the  species  of  history 


314         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

known  as  Biography  (the  history  of  a  person),  Fragments  of 
History  (the  history  of  an  epoch  of  time),  Compends  of  His- 
tory (the  history  of  the  great  events  of  a  country),  General 
History  (the  history  of  nations  through  all  epochs  of  time). 
Complete  History  (the  history  of  all  the  events  of  a  nation), 
etc. 

III.  THE  HISTORY  OF  HISTORY. 

The  history  of  history  is  a  most  interesting  study.  Our 
inquiry  must  be  limited  to  two  topics,  (1)  The  Stages  in  the 
Evolution  of  History  ;  and  (2)  The  Present  Status  of  History. 

Stages  in  the  Evolution  of  History.  Herodotus  is 
known  as  the  "  Father  of  History."  In  one  sense  this  is  not 
true,  for  epic  poetry,  inscription,  and  legends  are  forms  of 
descriptive  history.  It  is  true,  these  forms  of  history  are  not 
literally  credible,  but  as  efforts  they  must  be  classified  with 
descriptive  history.  Accordingly,  descriptive  history  began  in 
the  very  earliest  times.  Explanatory  history  began  in  modern 
times.  German,  French,  and  English  historians,  such  as 
Raumer,  Guizot,  and  Green,  tried  to  trace  effects  to  their 
causes,  but  rarely  attempted  anything  like  prevision.  It  is 
only  lately,  and  possibly  through  the  stimulus  of  Guizot's 
efforts,  that  explanatory  history  is  becoming  philosophy  and 
practical  guidance. 

The  Present  Status  of  History.  Modern  school  histories 
for  younger  pupils  are  rather  descriptive  than  explanatory, 
and  when,  as  in  the  books  of  Fisher,  Myers,  Montgomery, 
Morris,  and  others,  explanations  are  attempted,  they  are  retro- 
spective rather  than  prospective  views.  It  is  only  in  univer- 
sities that  history  is  beginning  to  be  evolved  into  a  philosophy 
of  events,  the  purpose  being  to  develop  historians  and  philo- 
sophical scholarship.  It  is  to  be  earnestly  hoped  that  our 
school  histories  may  soon  be  developed  into  a  practical  guid- 
ance study,  in  somewhat  the  same  sense  as  arithmetic,  grammar, 
and  botany  are  guidance  studies. 


HISTOEY  315 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  HISTORY. 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  ideal  instruction,  the  teacher 
of  history  must  understand,  (1)  The  Courses  of  History ;  (2) 
The  Tasks  of  the  Courses ;  (3)  The  Methods  of  Instruction, 
and  (4)  The  Importance  of  History. 

The  Courses  of  History-  The  logical  relation  of  events 
is  inseparable  from  their  relations  in  space  and  time.  This 
conjunction  imposes  upon  the  student  of  history  the  unique 
necessity  of  thinking  events  in  space  and  time  in  order  to 
understand  the  course  of  events — as  causes  and  effects  ;  it  also 
helps  to  determine  the  phases  of  complexity  in  the  relations 
of  events.  The  consequent  series  of  subjects  and  tasks  con- 
stitutes the  courses  of  history  as  science.  These  courses  (with- 
out going  into  the  argument  that  reveals  them,  since  the  reader 
is  expected  to  find  a  parallel  argument  in  the  chapter  on  geog- 
raphy) are  as  follows :  (1)  The  Elementary  Course ;  (2)  The 
Intermediate  Course ;  and  (3)  The  Higher  Course. 

I.  THE  ELEMENTARY  COUESE  IN  HISTOEY. 
Each  course  of  history  has  its  specific  tasks,  methods,  and 
subjects.     Inasmuch  as  tasks  determine  methods  and  suggest 
subjects,  these  topics  will  be  taken  up  in  order. 

a.   THE   TASKS   OF   ELEMENTARY   HISTORY. 

The  specific  tasks  of  instruction  in  elementary  history  are 
(1)  To  construct  simple  events  in  the  pupil's  imagination  and 
memory ;  and  (2)  To  cause  inquiry  into  the  immediate  (ob- 
vious) relations  of  events.  The  performance  of  these  tasks 
virtually  satisfies  the  requirements  of  ideal  instruction.  (See 
the  chapter  on  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Construction  of  Events  in  the  Pupil's  Mind.  The 
pupil  must  construct  the  teacher's  account  of  simple  events 
into  seeming  realities,  as  adults  do  when  they  read  the  account 
of  Napoleon  crossing  the  Alps.    Since  this  process  of  imagina- 


316         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion  is  the  pupil's  substitute  for  perception,  and  the  only  prac- 
tical substitute,  it  is  a  specific  necessity  in  history.  The  events 
thus  constructed  in  imagination  must,  of  course,  be  impressed 
upon  the  memory  of  the  pupil  and  made  permanent  posses- 
sions of  his  mind. 

Inquiry  into  the  Relations  of  Events.  The  conception 
of  events  and  memory  are  only  introductory  processes  in  the 
study  of  history.  This  introduction,  however,  in  combination 
with  simple  judgment,  furnishes  the  pupil's  mind  with  the  facts 
of  space  and  time,  and  thus  prepares  the  pupil  to  see  the  con- 
nection of  events  as  parts,  and  as  causes  and  effects.  It  is  only 
the  most  obvious  (immediate)  relations  of  events  that  are 
appropriate  subject-matter  for  beginners  in  history,  but  to  re- 
press inquiry,  or  to  require  pupils  to  imagine  and  remember 
events  without  stimulating  rational  inquiry,  is  to  stultify  the 
pupil's  reasoning  powers.  There  are  many  opportunities  even 
in  elementary  classes  for  simple  induction  and  deduction,  and 
to  miss  such  opportunities  is  to  fail  as  a  teacher.  (See  the 
Sixth  and  Tenth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  When,  for  ex- 
ample, the  pupil  has  learned  the  story  of  Penn's  treaty  with 
the  Indians  at  Philadelphia,  he  should  be  induced  to  ask  why 
Penn  treated  the  Indians  as  he  did,  how  the  Indians  kept  their 
word  to  Penn,  whether  they  always  (law)  kept  their  promises, 
what  therefore  was  the  best  way  to  get  along  with  Indians. 
In  this  series  of  inquiries,  simple  and  natural  enough  for  chil- 
dren, the  whole  pupil  (intellect,  feeling,  and  will)  is  virtually 
called  into  activity.  Thus  all  the  requirements  of  ideal  in- 
struction are  satisfied. 

h.   THE   METHOD   OF   ELEMENTARY   HISTORY. 

Suitable  means  and  elective  management  of  means  are  the 
two  essentials  of  a  good  method.  We  must,  accordingly,  con- 
sider at  this  point  (1)  The  Means  in  Elementary  History ;  and 
(2)  The  Events  of  a  Recitation  in  Elementary  History. 


HISTORY  317 

The  Means  in  Elementary  History.  The  possibility  of 
representing  space  and  time  concretely  by  means  of  pictures, 
maps,  and  charts  makes  these  the  most  suitable,  if  not  (see 
the  Fourth  Principle  of  Knowledge)  the  indispensable,  means 
in  elementary  history,  where,  as  we  have  jnst  seen,  one  end 
in  view  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  instruction  is  to 
represent  events  concretely  to  the  imagination,  thus  aiding  not 
only  the  memory  but  especially  also  the  understanding  of 
events  as  contents  of  space  and  time.  Books  adapted  to  the 
pupil's  capacity,  and  planned  with  special  reference  to  the 
child's  love  of  concrete  thought,  are  the  appropriate  supple- 
ments, and  should  become  regular  means  the  third  year  of  his- 
tory.    (See  the  first  four  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

The  Events  of  a  Recitation  in  Elementary  History. 
A  recitation  in  elementary  history  should  consist  of  three 
events :  (1)  Reconstruction,  (2)  Additional  Construction,  and 
(3)  Explanation. 

Reconstruction.  A  recitation  in  history  should  begin  with 
review,  and  the  review  should  begin  as  far  back  as  time  allows 
or  logic  requires.  Two  desirable  results  can  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  such  reviews:  (1)  The  pupil's  acquisitions  be- 
come permanent  possessions,  and  (2)  The  cumulative  junction 
of  old  and  new  lessons  aids  the  pupil's  understanding  and 
promotes  interest.  In  these  reviews  the  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  start  at  some  definite  point  of  time,  or  with  some 
definite  fact,  and  tell  what  he  knows  in  a  connected  way,  with 
as  little  interruption  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  possible. 
More  than  one  pupil  should  be  requested  to  tell  the  same  story 
in  speech  or  writing ;  this  will  stimulate  competitive  eiforts. 
All  the  members  of  the  class  must  be  made  to  understand  that 
they  may  be  called  upon  to  supplement  or  repeat  the  recita- 
tion of  any  other  member.  In  the  hands  of  a  knowing  teacher, 
such  reviews  become  both  stepping-stones  and  incentives  to  the 
"  new  matter"  of  a  recitation.    Inasmuch  as  these  reviews  are 


318         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

corrective,  they  are  indispensable  to  the  constructive  process 
that  must  follow ;  apart  from  such  correction  all  additions  are 
likely  to  be  blunders  in  architecture. 

Construction.  The  constructive  work  of  a  recitation  in  ele- 
mentary history  consists  of  instruction,  integration,  and  cor- 
rection. (1)  In  the  absence  of  text-books,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  elementary  instruction  (see  Princi- 
ples of  Instruction),  the  teacher  relates  additional  history  to 
his  class,  using  objects,  pictures,  relics,  charts,  maps,  etc.,  to 
illustrate  his  narratives,  and  proceeding  in  such  a  way  as  to 
require  the  pupils  to  interpret  what  they  hear  by  comparing 
it  with  experiences.  The  procedure  should  be  as  perfect  a  sub- 
stitute of  actual  observation  as  possible.  The  teacher  must  be 
careful  to  adapt  the  "  new  matter"  which  he  relates  to  the 
pupil's  interest  and  present  powers.  He  must  also  be  certain 
of  the  attention  of  the  whole  class.  (2)  In  ideal  instruction 
the  pupil's  mind  is  at  work  as  it  would  be  in  actual  observa- 
tion. To  make  sure  of  this,  and  to  assist  the  process,  the 
pupil  must  be  required  to  describe  in  his  own  way  the  new 
structure  in  his  mind.  In  other  words,  this  descriptive  process 
is  important  for  three  reasons  :  it  requires  the  pupil's  attention 
to  the  teacher's  instruction ;  it  renders  the  facts  learned  con- 
crete in  their  integration  by  constructing  them  in  the  imagina- 
tion ;  and  it  is  an  excellent  discipline  in  language.  (3)  To 
make  sure  that  the  structure  which  the  teacher  is  trying  to 
construct  in  the  pupil's  imagination  and  memory  is  not  de- 
fective, and  that  all  the  members  of  the  class  are  building  suc- 
cessfully, he  must  ask  "  search-light,"  or  "  X-ray"  questions. 
It  is  essential  to  ideal  instruction  that  the  teacher  should  be  a 
master  in  this  corrective  process. 

Explanation.  In  order  to  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  the 
recitation  in  elementary  history,  and  to  improve  as  well  as 
employ  the  whole  pupil  (intellect,  feeling,  and  will),  explana- 
tion must  be  added  to   review  and  description.      (See  the 


HISTOEY  319 

Fourth,  Seventh,  and  Tenth  Principles  of  Instruction.)  Ex- 
planation, as  was  pointed  out,  is  an  inquiry  into  relations. 
The  process  begins  with  induction  and  ends  in  deduction.  In 
elementary  history,  only  the  obvious  (immediate)  relations  are 
appropriate  subject  matter. 

Suggestion.  In  due  time  suitable  books  should  be  brought 
into  the  recitation  as  supplements  to  the  teacher's  narratives 
and  explanations.  The  teacher  may  sometimes  read  what  he 
has  already  told  the  class,  or  partly  developed  in  their  minds 
by  means  of  questions,  thus  leading  the  pupils  to  see  the  use 
of  books,  and  stimulating  the  desire  to  read.  He  may  also 
suggest  books  to  be  read  by  the  pupils.  A  suitable  text-book 
should  become  the  basis  of  the  recitations  the  third  year. 

The  "  Subjects"  of  Elementary  History.  The  possi- 
bility of  interesting  pupils,  and  the  working  possibilities  of 
the  class,  determine  the  choice  of  subjects  in  elementary  his- 
tory. (See  Principles  of  Instruction.)  Accordingly,  elemen- 
tary history  should  begin  with  interesting  biography.  (1) 
Inasmuch  as  local  biography  is  nearest  to  the  child's  imagina- 
tion, it  is  the  best  introduction  to  history  in  its  larger  sense. 
(2)  The  second  half  of  the  first  year  should  be  devoted  to 
those  persons  around  whom  the  great  events  of  American  his- 
tory cluster.  Introducing  the  class  to  the  most  appropriate 
characters  of  each  epoch  somewhat  in  their  chronological 
order  and  in  close  association  with  their  geography,  the  teacher 
should  endeavor  especially  to  develop  right  concepts  and  atti- 
tudes in  pupils. 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the  representative  charac- 
ters of  American  biography,  the  pupil  is  prepared  to  study 
collections  of  persons.  Those  events  that  stand  out  conspic- 
uous in  the  various  epochs  of  American  history,  and  which 
must  be  made  the  subject  of  extended  study  in  later  years,  are 
practically  the  most  appropriate  subjects  for  the  second  year 
in  history. 


320        PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Pupils  introduced  into  history  in  the  way  just  suggested 
should  be  ready  to  take  up  Morris's  "  Elementary  History," 
or  an  equivalent.  Lessons  should  be  regularly  assigned  and 
prepared  as  supplements  to  the  teacher's  instruction,  but  the 
requirements  should  not  be  difficult.  Such  a  persuasive  in- 
troduction to  a  book  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  a  right 
conception  of  the  function  of  books  in  general. 

II.  THE  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE  IN  HISTORY. 

The  course  of  history  which  is  appropriate  to  the  average 
grammar-school  pupil  is  conveniently  termed  the  intermediate 
course. 

a.    THE   TASKS   OF   INTERMEDIATE   HISTOEY. 

The  characteristic  tasks  of  intermediate  history  are  as  fol- 
lows :  the  conception  of  individuals  (subjects)  of  greater  com- 
plexity ;  the  multiplication  of  concepts  (characters,  events) ; 
and  inquiry  into  remoter  relations  of  cause  and  effect. 

Imagination  of  Complex  Subjects.  According  to  the 
requirements  of  ideal  instruction,  the  more  complex  phases  of 
men  (and  events)  to  whom  the  pupil  was  introduced  in  the 
elementary  course  are  appropriate  subjects  in  the  intermediate 
course.  Washington,  for  example,  was  known  to  the  elemen- 
tary pupils  as  an  exemplary  son,  a  heroic  youth,  etc. ;  but  to 
the  intermediate  pupil  he  becomes  an  officer  in  the  French  and 
Indian  Wars,  the  commander-in-chief  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  finally  the  President  of  the  United  States.  These 
wars,  too,  were  known  to  the  elementary  pupils,  but  only  in 
their  simplest  phases.  The  intermediate  pupil  observes  strong- 
holds, armies,  marches,  battles,  retreats,  treaties,  etc. 

Addition  of  Subjects.  Men  and  events  to  which  the  ele- 
mentary pupils  were  not  introduced  at  all  must  be  introduced 
in  the  intermediate  course.  In  other  words,  intermediate  his- 
tory deals  not  only  with  subjects  of  greater  complexity,  but 


HISTORY  321 

also  increases  the  number  of  subjects  as  much  as  the  nature 
of  the  case  may  require. 

Inquiry  into  Remoter  Relations.  It  becomes  necessary 
for  the  intermediate  pupil  to  study  not  only  the  causes  and 
eflfects  of  isolated  events,  but  also  their  connection  as  a  course 
of  events.  It  would,  of  course,  be  unreasonable  to  expect 
philosophical  insight  at  this  stage  of  history,  but  pupils  ready 
for  the  average  high  school  should  know  at  least  the  "  thread" 
of  American  history  and  such  principles  of  American  civic  life 
as  fit  them  to  be  good  citizens,  even  if  they  should  never  be 
able  to  take  a  high-school  course. 


b.   THE   METHOD   OF   INTERMEDIATE  HISTOEY. 

The  following  topics  deserve  our  attention  at  this  point : 
(1)  The  ISTecessary  Means  in  Intermediate  History ;  (2)  The 
Preparation  of  Lessons ;  and  (3)  The  Events  of  a  Recita- 
tion. 

The  Necessary  Means.  Since  pupils  of  the  intermediate 
course  in  any  branch  of  study  should  be  required  to  depend 
more  upon  themselves  than  upon  the  teacher  as  a  source  of  in- 
formation, they  must  be  supplied  with  the  necessary  substi- 
tutes: (1)  The  pupil  of  intermediate  history  needs  a  syste- 
matic catalogue  of  subjects  to  be  studied.  A  text-book  such 
as  Morris's  "  History  of  the  United  States"  is  therefore  in- 
dispensable. (2)  The  liabit  of  comparing  authorities — a  most 
important  habit  in  education — should  begin  in  the  interme- 
diate course  of  history.  The  pupil  should  therefore  have 
access  to  supplementary  text-books.  (3)  A  text-book  is  only 
an  outline  of  that  which  may  be  known  on  most  subjects.  As 
a  stimulus  to  broader  and  deeper  scholarship,  reference  books 
are  indispensable.  (4)  Then,  too,  it  is  impossible  to  under- 
stand history  apart  from  its  geography.  The  pupil  should 
therefore  have  access  to  suitable  maps,  charts,  etc.     Relief 

21 


322         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

maps  of  battle-fields,  etc.^  made  of  papier-mache  are  especially 
helpful  to  the  pupil. 

The  Preparation  of  Lessons.  Economy  and  discipline 
require  that  in  the  case  of  intermediate  pupils  in  history  the 
preparation  and  recitation  of  lessons  should  be  distinct  events. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation.  There  are  at  least  two  reasons 
why  the  teacher's  mastery  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  should 
be  as  perfect  as  possible  :  (1)  Such  mastery  is  likely  to  enthuse 
the  teacher,  so  that  he  works  with  purpose  and  energy.  (2) 
The  teacher  must  master  a  subject  with  all  his  powers  in  order 
that  he  may  kno\v  what  mental  activities  to  call  into  service  in 
his  pupils  and  in  what  order.  Knowing  these  points,  he  can 
form  an  intelligent  plan  for  the  prospective  recitation,  choose 
the  best  means,  and  prepare  himself  to  use  these  means  most 
eifectively.  Thus  it  follows  that  the  teacher  of  history  must 
study  the  pupil's  text- book  in  connection  with  other  text- 
books, maps,  pictures,  dictionaries,  encyclopaedias,  etc.,  think 
every  lesson  into  its  connection  with  preceding  and  following 
lessons,  and  plan  the  recitation  to  meet  all  the  requirements. 

The  PupiPs  Preparation.  A  definite  lesson  having  been 
assigned,  and  helpful  directions  given,  the  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  study  his  text  in  connection  with  other  texts,  maps, 
cyclopaedias,  and  the  dictionary.  The  teacher  must  insist  on 
important  elates,  names,  places,  etc.  Every  pupil  should  be 
made  to  feel  that  every  lesson  ought  to  improve  his  vocabulary 
and  sentences,  but  no  pupil  should  be  allowed  to  commit  the 
text.  The  habit  of  thinking  the  lesson  in  one's  own  language, 
arranging  the  thoughts  of  the  lesson  into  a  system,  and  bring- 
ing it  into  connection  with  past  lessons,  should  be  developed 
in  all  pupils.  Progressive  maps  and  outlines  may  be  required 
as  part  of  the  preparation  of  pupils  in  intermediate  history. 

The  Recitation  in  Intermediate  History.  The  items  to 
be  considered  in  this  connection  are  as  follows :  (1)  Written 
Work ;  (2)  Oral  Work ;  (3)  The  Examination  of  the  Writ- 


HISTOEY  323 

ten  Work ;  (4)  The  Assignment  of  Lessons ;  and  (5)  Review 
Recitations. 

Written  Work.  (1)  The  following  are  obvious  merits  of 
written  work  in  recitations  :  it  is  a  stimulus  to  thorough  prep- 
aration of  lessons ;  it  is  a  better  test  of  the  pupil's  preparation 
and  capacity ;  it  enables  the  teacher  to  employ  more  pupils 
simultaneously ;  it  is  the  teacher's  best  opportunity  to  present 
the  "  thread"  of  history  in  the  questions  which  he  prepares 
for  those  pupils  who  are  to  write  out  the  recitation  ;  it  is  a  fine 
opportunity  for  the  pupil  to  tell  in  a  connected  way  what  he 
knows  and  thinks ;  and  it  is  an  excellent  supplement  to  the 
regular  work  in  composition.  (2)  The  black-board  is  the  inost 
suitable  means  for  written  work  in  recitations.  The  places  at 
the  board  should  be  numbered.  Numbered  questions — a  logi- 
cal series  of  questions,  the  series  beginning  in  reviews  and 
bringing  these  into  connection  with  the  advance  lesson,  the 
whole  arrangement  so  planned  as  to  cover  the  ground  in  out- 
line— carefully  prepared  by  the  teacher  should  be  placed  be- 
low the  corresponding  numbers  over  the  black-board  as  soon 
as  the  class  is  ready  for  work.  As  soon  as  these  questions 
have  been  assigned  to  the  class  "  by  numbers,"  the  persons  to 
whom  the  numbers  were  assigned  should  be  requested  to  pass 
to  the  board,  write  their  name  at  the  top,  copy  the  question, 
analyze  it  into  topics,  and  proceed  to  write  out  the  necessary 
paragraphs.  (3)  The  teacher  should  spare  no  efforts  to  develop 
in  his  pupils  right  habits  and  tastes  in  spelling,  punctuation, 
capitalization,  diction,  sentence  qualities,  plan  of  paragraphs, 
penmanship,  etc.  No  book  should  be  allowed  in  the  recita- 
tion.    Both  pupils  and  teachers  should  cultivate  self-reliance. 

Oral  Work  While  part  of  the  class  is  reciting  at  the  board, 
the  teacher  puts  questions  to  the  other  members  of  the  class, 
requires  oral  answers,  conducts  drills,  offers  suggestions,  etc. 
A  skilful  teacher  can  make  this  oral  work  a  stimulus  to  prep- 
aration of  lessons,  a  discipline  in  thinking,  a  valuable  means 


324         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  instruction,  and  an  excellent  opportunity  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil's  power  to  speak. 

The  Examination  of  the  Work  on  the  Board.  When  about 
half  the  time  allotted  to  the  recitation  has  expired,  and  all  the 
writers  have  returned  from  the  board,  the  examination  of  the 
board  should  begin.  The  writers  should  read  in  the  order  of 
the  numbers  on  the  board.  The  reading  of  both  questions 
and  answers  should  be  distinct,  forcible,  and  elegant.  The 
whole  class  should  be  required  to  hold  themselves  In  readiness 
to  criticise,  but  always  in  strict  subordination  to  the  teacher's 
supervision.  The  teacher  should  supplement,  correct,  and 
instruct  whenever  time  allows  and  wherever  it  is  proper.  In 
the  performance  of  this  task  skill  in  drawing  will  be  very 
helpful,  and  superior  scholarship  will  be  an  inspiration  to  the 
class. 

The  Assignment  of  Lessons.  In  advanced  classes  and  in 
cases  where  the  teacher  can  estimate  the  probabilities,  the  next 
lesson  may  be  assigned  before  the  regular  work  of  a  recitation 
begins.  Commonly,  however,  it  is  best  to  assign  the  next  les- 
son at  the  close  of  a  recitation.  The  teacher's  assignments 
should  be  very  definite.  The  pupil  should  be  directed  to  the 
various  sources  of  information,  and  helpful  suggestions  should 
be  added. 

A  Review  Recitation.  In  addition  to  the  reviews  with  which 
all  recitations  should  begin,  there  should  be  special  reviews  as 
often  as  tune  permits  and  necessity  dictates.  In  these  review 
recitations  the  questions  on  the  board  should  be  a  progressive 
series,  i.e.,  events  should  be  considered  in  their  chronological 
order.  The  oral  questions  may  be  put  in  reverse  order  for 
variety  and  discipline.  This  regressive  order  is  rather  diffi- 
cult for  younger  pupils. 

The  "  Subjects"  of  Intermediate  History.  (1)  An  ordi- 
nary text-book  on  history  is  the  best  practical  catalogue  of 
subjects  in  intermediate  history.     (2)  In  order  to  be  a  suitable 


HISTORY  325 

text-book,  it  should  be  adapted  in  subject-matter,  plan,  and 
language  to  the  stages  of  the  pupil's  development.  The  sub- 
ject-matter should  not  be  too  abstract  and  general.  The  plan 
of  a  book  for  intermediate  pupils  should  be  rather  ethno- 
graphic than  synchronistic ;  it  should  be  logical,  but  not  too 
complex.  The  vocabulary  for  a  class  in  intermediate  history 
should  be  unpretentious,  precise,  and  not  too  copious,  while 
the  structure  of  sentences  and  paragraphs  should  be  simple, 
concise,  and  elegant. 

III.  THE   HIGHER  COURSE  IN  HISTORY. 

The  study  of  history  in  the  high  school,  normal  school,  col- 
lege, and  university  deserves  for  several  reasons  to  be  termed 
the  higher  course  in  history  :  (1)  The  ends  in  view  are  higher ; 
and  (2)  The  scientific  method,  though  employed  in  miniature 
in  the  elementary  course,  and  with  considerable  strictness  in 
the  intermediate  course,  is  pressed  to  its  utmost  limits  in  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning. 

The  Tasks  of  Higher  History.  There  are  several  distinct 
ends  in  view  in  higher  history  :  (1)  To  train  the  student  so 
thoroughly  in  the  subject-matter  and  method  of  history  that 
he  will  realize  its  intrinsic  merits,  and  therefore  love  and  study 
it  after  school  days  have  ended.  (2)  To  equip  the  general  stu- 
dent and  the  great  professions  with  such  knowledge  of  history 
as  is  needed  in  their  various  pursuits.  (3)  To  pursue  the 
study  of  history  as  science  and  philosophy,  and  to  contribute 
as  much  as  possible  to  the  development  of  the  science  and  phi- 
losophy of  history. 

The  Distribution  of  "Subjects"  in  Higher  History. 
Inasmuch  as  the  method  of  study  and  recitation  in  higher  his- 
tory, though  somewhat  modified  to  suit  maturer  minds,  is  vir- 
tually the  same  as  before,  no  additional  description  is  neces- 
sary at  this  point.  It  seems  necessary,  however,  as  a  matter 
of  instruction  for  young  men  and  women,  to  map  out  a  suit- 


326         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

able  course  in  higher  history.  The  following  outline  is  re- 
spectfully submitted : 

High-School  History.  (1)  Our  high  schools  should  offer  a 
course  in  general  history,  as  much  as  may  be  found  in  Myers ; 
and,  if  time  allows,  a  special  course  in  Greek,  Eoman,  and 
English  history  should  be  added.  (2)  A  course  in  civil  gov- 
ernment also  belongs  to  the  high-school  course  in  history. 
Every  high-school  graduate  should  know  enough  about  the 
Constitution  of  his  own  State  and  that  of  the  United  States  to 
enable  him  to  be  a  good  citizen,  and,  if  need  be,  a  good  officer. 

Normal-School  History.  (1)  Normal  schools  should  offer  a 
very  thorough  course  in  the  history  of  the  United  States,  gen- 
eral history,  and  civil  government.  (2)  The  pedagogics  of 
history  must,  of  course,  be  added. 

College  History.  It  devolves  on  colleges  to  offer  courses 
in  general  history,  special  courses  in  the  history  of  the  great 
nations,  courses  in  the  various  departments  of  civics,  and  a 
course  in  the  philosophy  of  history. 

University  History.  It  belongs  to  the  university  (1)  to  offer 
an  extended  course  in  the  philosophy  of  history ;  and  (2)  to 
develop  the  science  and  philosophy  of  history  by  original  con- 
tributions. The  method  of  the  university  must,  of  course,  be 
scientific  in  the  fullest  sense,  and  implies  original  investiga- 
tions. 

IV.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HISTORY. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  such  a  catalogue  of  events,  dates, 
and  names  as  frequently  passes  for  history  is  perhaps  interest- 
ing enough  as  reading-matter,  but  of  no  special  value  in  the 
education  of  a  man  or  woman.  The  fact  that  history  has  too 
commonly  consisted  of  such  enumerations,  and  that  these  are 
so  often  simply  committed  to  memory,  is  deplorable  enough. 
But  history  is  more  than  "  a  record  of  events"  ;  it  is  a  science, 
and  as  such  must  be  a  valuable  instrument  in  education.    The 


HISTORY  327 

opinions  of  Compayre,  Fitch,  and  the  "  Committee  of  Fif- 
teen" on  this  subject  are  particularly  interesting. 

The  Culture-Value  of  History.  Inasmuch  as  history  is 
a  science,  the  necessary  method  of  study  calls  into  service  the 
whole  pupil  (intellect,  feeling,  and  will).  The  study  of  his- 
tory, as  we  know  from  a  consideration  of  its  method,  is  a  most 
excellent  means  in  the  training  of  the  imagination,  memory, 
judgment,  reasoning,  conscience,  patriotism,  etc. 

The  Instruction- Value  of  History.  As  the  science  of 
events,  history  is  a  school- master  of  citizens  and  moral  agents. 
(1)  History  is  the  citizen's  school- master  because  it  teaches 
him  the  laws  of  national  life  just  as  effectively  as  physiology 
teaches  the  laws  of  physical  life.  (2)  A  knowledge  of  causes 
and  effects  in  the  moral  career  of  historical  characters  is  moral 
philosophy  in  the  concrete. 

A  Source  of  Satisfaction.  To  thinking  men  and  women 
the  science  of  events  must  be  a  source  of  great  satisfaction. 
Just  as  people  who  have  never  viewed  the  world  of  nature 
from  its  mountain-tops  rejoice  with  exceeding  great  joy  on 
finally  beholding  the  glories  and  wonders  of  earth,  so  do  those 
who  behold  the  world  "as  it  was  and  is  and  shall  be"  rejoice 
in  the  gratification  of  their  philosophic  senses. 

The  Training-  of  Teachers  of  History.  Since  the  study 
of  history  can  be  made  such  a  valuable  instrument  in  educa- 
tion, it  must  be  obvious  that  the  responsibility  of  teachers  of 
history  is  very  great.  This  conclusion  obtains  added  force 
from  the  fact  that  history  has  so  commonly  been  taught  simply 
as  "a  record  of  events"  and  by  the  "rote"  method.  It  fol- 
lows, therefore,  that  teachers  of  history  need  a  thorough  train- 
ing (1)  in  history  itself,  and  (2)  in  the  pedagogics  of  history. 


328         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
CHAPTER    XL 

DRAWING. 

The  true  object  of  instruction  is  to  cause  right  mental 
processes  in  pupils.  (See  the  Principles  of  Instruction.)  It 
is  obvious  that,  in  order  to  cause  right  mental  processes  in 
teaching  any  branch  of  study,  the  teacher  should  hnow  those 
processes.  Therefore,  the  pedagogics  of  drawing  is  concerned 
with  two  general  topics  :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Drawing ;  and  (2) 
Instruction  in  Drawing. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  DRAWING-. 

The  nature  of  drawing  is  most  conveniently  studied  under 
the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Subject  of  Study  ;  (2)  The  Psy- 
chology of  Drawing ;  (3)  The  Definition  of  Drawing ;  and  (4) 
The  History  of  Drawing. 

I.  THE  SUBJECT  OF  STUDY. 

In  the  sense  in  which  arithmetic  is  the  study  of  numbers, 
drawing  is  the  study  of  linear  representation  of  forms. 

Linear  Representation  of  Forms.  It  is  possible  to  simu- 
late the  real  outline  of  objects  so  perfectly  on  a  flat  surface  that 
on  seeing  the  representation  we  recognize  the  intended  sem- 
blance. This  linear  representation  of  objects  is  termed  Draio- 
ing.  Three  things  in  the  process  of  drawing  require  special 
attention :  (1)  The  Length  of  Lines ;  (2)  The  Direction  of 
Lines ;  and  (3)  Marks  of  Expression. 

The  Length  of  Lines.  There  are  two  modes  of  determining 
the  length  of  lines  in  drawing :  (1)  The  length-facts  of  an 
object  may  be  observed  and  represented  without  the  aid  of 
measuring  instruments.    (2)  The  length-facts  of  an  object  may 


DRAWING  329 

be  observed  and  represented  by  means  of  measuring  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  foot-rule,  compass,  etc. 

The  Direction  of  Lines.  (1)  The  lines  of  a  drawing  that 
represents  a  plane  surface  to  the  eye  directly  in  front  of  its 
centre  have  the  same  direction  as  the  lines  of  the  surface  rep- 
resented in  the  drawing.  (2)  As  the  distance  from  the  eye 
increases,  the  surface  of  an  object  seems  to  grow  smaller.  (See 
Natural  Philosophy.)  For  the  same  reason  receding  surfaces 
seem  smaller.  This  appearance  of  objects  is  represented  in 
drawings  by  convergent  receding  and  shortened  vertical  lines. 
The  position  directly  opposite  the  eye  is  indicated  by  a  point 
on  the  paper,  and  all  receding  lines  representative  of  the  edges 
of  objects  are  drawn  to  that  point.  Vertical  lines,  of  course, 
remain  vertical  in  the  drawing ;  but,  since  the  paper  is  sup- 
posed to  lie  in  a  vertical  plane,  the  vertical  lines  become  shorter 
as  the  distance  from  the  point  of  vision  increases,  the  length 
being  determined  by  the  convergent  lines.  (3)  There  are  two 
modes  of  representing  the  direction,  as  well  as  the  lines :  (1) 
"  By  eye,"  and  (2)  By  means  of  instruments. 

Marks  of  Expression.  (1)  Light  is  the  indispensable  condi- 
tion of  sight.  It  is  on  the  sunny  side  of  objects  that  the  sur- 
faces are  illuminated ;  the  opposite  surfaces  are  darker,  and 
shadows  extend  from  them  in  the  direction  opposite  from  the 
light,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  determined  by  the  lines 
that  extend  from  the  edges  of  the  light  past  the  object.  (2) 
In  drawing,  some  point  from  which  the  light  is  supposed  to 
come  must  be  assumed.  The  phenomena  of  light  just  de- 
scribed must  be  represented  by  corresponding  light,  darkness, 
and  shadows.  The  marks  that  represent  these  phenomena 
are  termed  Harks  of  Expression.  Among  the  derivative  phe- 
nomena that  may  be  thus  represented  are  rotundity,  opacity, 
transparency,  the  grain  of  wood,  the  mechanical  plan  of  sur- 
faces, relative  tones  of  coloring,  etc. 


330         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

II.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  DRAWING. 

The  ideal  method  of  studying  linear  representation  of  forms, 
as  well  as  numbers  or  plants,  or  any  other  subject,  consists  of 
observation,  induction,  and  deduction.  (See  the  chapter  on 
the  Nature  of  Knowledge.) 

Observation  in  Dra^wing.  The  first  step  in  the  formal 
study  of  drawing  is  observation,  i.e.,  the  ascertainment  of  facts. 
Two  species  of  facts  must  be  ascertained  in  drawing  :  (1)  The 
Form-Facts  of  Objects,  and  (2)  The  Representation-Facts  of 
Form. 

The  Form-Facts  of  Objects.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  order 
to  draw  an  object  is  to  become  acquainted  with  its  outline,  i.e., 
with  its  bounding  lines,  their  direction,  length,  proportions, 
etc.  If,  for  example,  the  student  should  wish  to  draw  a  haf, 
he  must  first  ascertain  the  direction  of  the  rim-lines,  the 
breadth  of  the  rim,  the  height  and  shape  of  the  crown,  the 
width  of  the  band,  etc. 

The  Representation- Facts  of  Form.  It  is  not  enough  in 
drawing  to  know  the  form-facts  of  an  object ;  the  representa- 
tion-facts must  also  be  ascertained.  In  other  words,  the  ob- 
server must  find  out  what  lines  will  represent  the  object  in 
question  to  the  imagination.  In  the  case  of  a  hat,  for  exam- 
ple, the  observer  will  find  that  a  very  small  number  of  lines 
virtually  represent  the  hat  completely. 

Induction  in  Drawing.  Two  species  of  laws  must  be  as- 
certained in  drawing:  (1)  The  Form-Laws  of  Objects,  and 
(2)  The  Laws  of  Form-Representation. 

The  Fo7^m-Laws  of  Objects.  It  is  found  by  comparison  of 
the  form-facts  of  objects  that  all  objects  are  analyzable  into 
the  various  elementary  phases  of  the  sphere,  the  cube,  the  cyl- 
inder, the  cone,  the  pyramid,  etc.  These  form-laws  of  objects 
must  be  developed  in  pupils  just  as  any  other  law  is  developed, 
i.e.,  by  hypothesis  and  proof.     The  development  of  the  con- 


DRAWING  331 

cepts  of  the  elementary  forms,  together  with  the  terms  and 
definitions  that  belong  to  their  description,  is  the  indispensa- 
ble task  of  pupils  who  would  be  masters  in  drawing.  It  is 
only  when  these  concepts  have  become  standards  of  compari- 
son that  objects  cau  be  readily  classified  and  represented. 

The  Laws  of  Form-Representation.  It  is  found  by  compari- 
son of  facts  that  the  length,  direction,  and  repetition  of  lines 
which  represent  objects  to  the  imagination  are  subject  to  law, 
just  as  the  forms  of  objects  are  subject  to  law.  (See  Natural 
Philosophy.)  (1)  The  relative  lengths  to  be  represented  can  be 
perfectly  represented  by  means  of  a  "  scale  of  proportions." 
(2)  The  appearance  of  objects  of  three  dimensions  is  a  perspec- 
tive phenomenon  subject  to  the  laws  of  light,  and  therefore 
capable  of  mathematically  correct  representation,  the  main  feat- 
ures of  the  problem  being  the  point  of  vision,  the  level  of  the 
eye,  and  the  position  of  the  object.  (3)  The  amount  of  light, 
or  its  absence,  can  be  represented  by  such  repetition  of  lines 
as  will  simulate  the  phenomena  in  question. 

The  discovery  of  the  laws  of  linear  form-representation  has 
made  a  science  of  drawing  possible,  and  the  study  of  these 
laws  is  as  indispensable  to  great  success  in  drawing  as  the 
study  of  the  laws  of  numbers  is  to  great  success  in  arithmetic. 
It  is  only  when  these  laws  have  become  familiar  that  the 
countless  diversities  of  object-forms  can  be  satisfactorily  rep- 
resented. 

Deduction  in  Drawing-.  There  are  two  deductive  tasks 
in  drawing :  (1)  The  analysis  of  objects  into  type-forms,  and 
(2)  The  linear  representation  of  objects. 

Type-Form  Analysis  of  Objects.  The  first  thing  to  do  in 
systematic  drawing  is  to  discover  the  elementary  form  or 
forms  to  which  the  object  or  imagination  to  be  represented 
belongs.  If,  for  example,  the  student  wishes  to  draw  a 
goblet,  it  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  him  to  see  in  the 
goblet-form  the  elementary  square  and  circle.      Apart  from 


332         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

such  analysis  every  task  in  drawing  is  an  isolated,  unclassified 
experiment. 

Linear  Representation  of  Objects.  There  are  two  possible 
modes  of  linear  representation  :  (1)  The  learner  may  observe 
and  imitate  the  representation  of  an  object.  This  mode  of 
drawing  does  not  presuppose  the  analysis  of  the  objects  to  be 
drawn  into  the  type-forms  to  which  they  belong.  The  task 
requires  perception,  memory,  imagination,  and  direct  compari- 
son, and  is,  therefore,  the  right  thing  for  beginners.  (See  the 
First  Principle  of  Instruction.)  (2)  The  learner  may  observe 
the  object  to  be  drawn,  analyze  it  into  its  type-forms,  and 
draw  it  by  rational  representation.  This  task  requires  a 
knoM'^ledge  of  "scales  of  proportion,"  "perspective,"  and 
"  mathematics,"  and  is  therefore  possible  only  for  maturer 
pupils.     (See  the  Sixth  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

The  Definition  of  Drawing-.  The  method  of  study  just 
described,  together  with  a  systematic  statement  of  results,  con- 
stitutes science.  A  science  of  drawing  is  therefore  possible, 
its  subject  being  linear  representation  of  forms.  But  drawing, 
as  a  physical  realization  of  science,  is  also  an  art.  Indeed, 
this  is  the  phase  of  drawing  commonly  in  mind  when  the  sub- 
ject is  mentioned.  Briefly  summed  up,  drawing  is  the  science 
and  art  of  linear  representation  of  forms.  The  following  clas- 
sifications are  convenient :  (1)  The  linear  representation  of 
forms  without  the  aid  of  measuring  instruments  is  termed 
Free-Hand  Drawing.  (2)  Representation  by  means  of  instru- 
ments is  termed  Mechanical  Drawing.  Both  free-hand  and 
mechanical  drawing  become  perspective  drawing  when  distance, 
direction,  and  light  are  taken  into  account.  The  special  feat- 
ure of  perspective  drawing  is  the  process  known  as  "  fore- 
shortening," i.e.,  the  representation  of  two  or  three  dimensions 
by  means  of  shorter  and  fewer  lines  as  determined  by  "  point 
of  vision."  The  terms  descriptive,  artistic,  industrial,  archi- 
tectural, etc.,  name  the  purposes  for  which  a  drawing  may  be 


DRAWING  333 

made.  Crayoning  and  engraving  are  also  regarded  as  species 
of  drawing. 

The  History  of  Dra'wing'.  The  most  ancient  people  had 
some  knowledge  of  drawing.  The  Oriental  nations,  especially 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Babylonians,  had  a  systematic  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject.  Greece  and  Rome  developed  drawing 
first  into  a  fine  and  then  into  a  useful  art.  Drawing  was  the 
handmaid  of  geometry,  one  of  the  famous  "  seven  liberal  arts" 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  educational  reformers,  especially 
Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  laid  great  stress  on  drawing. 
In  modern  education  drawing  has  become  an  absolute  neces- 
sity. 

In  primitive  times  drawing  served  as  a  substitute  for 
speech.  The  Egyptians  were  probably  the  first  to  produce  a 
system  of  "  picture"  writings.  In  Greece  the  aesthetic  impulse 
became  the  great  stimulus  to  drawing.  It  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued to  be  the  handmaid  of  the  fine  arts.  Drawing  first 
became  an  educational  means  in  Egypt  and  Greece.  Esthetic, 
moral,  and  practical  interests  have  made  drawing  an  impera- 
tive means  in  modern  education.  In  connection  with  manual 
training,  and  as  a  part  of  it,  drawing  will  acquire  still  greater 
importance. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  DRAWING-. 

The  nature  of  drawing  makes  inquiry  into  the  following 
subjects  a  necessity  for  teachers  of  drawing  :  (1)  The  Courses 
of  Instruction  in  Drawing ;  (2)  The  Subjects  of  Study  in  the 
Courses ;  (3)  The  Methods  of  Instruction ;  and  (4)  The  Im- 
portance of  Drawing. 

I.  THE  COUESES  OF  INSTEUOTION  IN  DEAWING. 

The  number  of  necessary  adaptations  of  the  subject  and 
method  of  drawing  to  the  powers  and  needs  of  the  pupils 
determines  the  number  and  character  of  the  courses  of  instruc- 


334         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion.  (See  the  Principles  of  Instruction.)  The  following 
topics,  therefore,  deserve  attention :  (1)  The  Nature  of  the 
Subject ;  (2)  Possibilities  of  the  Pupil ;  and  (3)  The  Number 
of  Courses. 

The  Nature  of  the  Subject.  (1)  Drawing  "from  pic- 
tures" requires  observation  and  imitation.  The  mental  func- 
tions thus  brought  into  service  are  perception,  memory,  imagi- 
nation, direct  comparison,  interest,  and  attention.  (2)  Drawing 
"  from  objects"  requires  the  analysis  of  the  object  to  be  drawn 
into  type-forms  and  rational  representation.  The  mental 
functions  thus  brought  into  service  are  perception,  direct  com- 
parison (implying  memory,  abstraction,  and  imagination),  de- 
ductive reasoning  (implying  previous  inductions  and  a  train- 
ing in  mathematics),  and  attention  (implying  interest).  (3) 
Drawing  "  from  problems,"  as  in  invention,  requires  rational 
comprehension  of  the  conditions  and  rational  representation. 
The  task  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  elementary  forms, 
simple  and  composite,  and  a  training  in  mathematics. 

The  Possibilities  of  the  Pupil.  (1)  The  power  to  imi- 
tate (see  Courses  of  Penmanship)  is  a  characteristic  power  of 
childhood.  (2)  The  rational  representation  of  objects  of  obser- 
vation, presupposing  skill  in  imitation  as  well  as  considerable 
maturity  in  syllogistic  thinking,  is  seldom  possible  before  the 
latter  part  of  the  grammar-school  epoch.  (3)  The  rational  rep- 
resentation of  imaginations  and  problems  requires  a  maturity 
in  abstraction  and  mathematics  which  is  seldom  to  be  found 
before  the  high-school  epoch. 

The  Number  of  Courses  in  Dra-wing-.  In  view  of  the 
psychology  of  drawing  and  the  powers  of  pupils,  it  seems 
appropriate  to  arrange  three  courses  of  instruction  in  drawing  : 
(1)  The  elementary,  or  imitative  course,  (2)  The  intermediate, 
or  rational  course ;  and  (3)  The  higher,  or  special  course. 


DRAWING  335 

II.  ELEMENTARY  DRAWING. 

The  following  topics  deserve  our  attention  at  this  point: 
(1)  The  Subjects  of  Elementary  Drawing,  and  (2)  The  Method 
of  Instruction. 

The  Subjects  of  Elementary  Drawing.  The  passage 
from  subject  to  subject  in  drawing  should  be  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex,  and  from  that  which  is  known  to  that  which 
is  in  logical  relation  with  it.  (See  First  and  Second  Princi- 
ples of  Instruction.)  Taking  these  requirements  and  the  pos- 
sibilities of  the  pupil  into  consideration,  it  is  believed  that  the 
following  ground  can  be  covered  in  about  six  years : 

(1)  The  sphere  and  its  obvious  resemblances  in  objects. 

(2)  One  face  of  the  cube  and  its  obvious  resemblances. 
This  step  includes  the  square  and  the  rectangle,  together  with 
such  descriptive  terms  as  straight  line,  right  angle,  etc. 

(3)  Two  faces  of  the  cube  from  various  points  of  vision 
and  obvious  resemblances.  The  worker  begins  with  a  front 
view,  and,  after  choosing  a  centre  of  vision,  completes  the  top 
face  by  first  drawing  receding  lines  and  then  choosing  a  rear 
line  for  the  top  face.  Lessons  on  the  right  and  left  faces  of 
the  cube  in  connection  with  the  front  face  should  be  added. 
The  faces  may  be  represented  as  open  and  containing  interest- 
ing objects.  No  attempt  should  be  made  at  this  time  to  ex- 
plain the  centre  of  vision  and  receding  lines.  The  appeal  in 
these  lessons  is  principally  to  the  child's  great  imitative  power. 

(4)  Three  or  more  faces  of  the  cube  from  various  right  and 
left  positions,  above  and  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  together 
with  obvious  resemblances.  In  the  course  of  these  lessons 
the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  recognize  and  name  the  three 
species  of  receding  lines,  parallel  lines,  and  surfaces.  Special 
lessons  on  the  centre  of  vision  and  the  horizon  line  will  be 
necessary. 

(5)  Easy  composition  of  sphere  and  cube  forms,  together 
with  obvious  resemblances  and  applications. 


336         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

(6)  The  vertical  cylinder  in  the  various  right  and  left  posi- 
tions, above  and  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  together  with  ob- 
vious resemblances  and  applications.  In  connection  with 
these  lessons  the  child  should  learn  to  distinguish  plane  from 
curved  and  round  surfaces. 

(7)  Tlie  horizonal  cylinder  in  the  various  positions,  together 
with  obvious  resemblances  and  applications. 

(8)  The  receding  cylinder  in  various  positions,  together  with 
obvious  resemblances  and  applications. 

(9)  Easy  composition  of  sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder  forms, 
including  obvious  resemblances  and  applications.  Easy  prob- 
lems may  be  added. 

(10)  Lessons  on  the  hemisphere,  cone,  prism,  etc.,  may  be 
introduced  at  this  time. 

(11)  Easy  invention  hy  line,  including  dictation,  substitu- 
tion, and  designing,  should  be  gradually  introduced,  but  not 
before  the  fifth  or  sixth  year. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Elementary  Drawing-. 
Two  points  deserve  our  present  attention  :  (1)  The  Preparation 
for  Lessons  in  Elementary  Drawing,  and  (2)  The  Recitation. 

Preparation  for  Lessons  in  Elementary  Drawing.  (1)  The 
teacher  of  drawing  should  see  to  it  that  there  is  a  supply  of 
necessary  materials  at  hand.  A  black-board  and  its  belong- 
ings, paper  and  its  belongings,  and  a  collection  of  elementary 
forms  are  among  the  important  materials  in  elementary  draw- 
ing. A  large  assortment  of  larger  and  smaller  objects  that 
obviously  resemble  the  elementary  forms  is  a  most  valuable 
equipment  in  elementary  drawing.  (2)  The  teacher  should  prac- 
tise placing  and  drawing  the  objects  that  are  to  be  used  in  the 
lessons.  He  should  study  how  to  introduce  devices  calculated 
to  interest  children  long  enough  in  a  given  form  to  teach  it 
thoroughly.  He  should  plan  the  steps  which  he  must  take,  the 
questions,  hints,  etc.,  and  try  to  be  prepared  for  all  emergencies. 

The  Recitation  in  Elementary  Drawing.     The  ideal  method 


DRAWING  337 

of  study,  as  already  pointed  out,  consists  of  observation,  in- 
duction, and  deduction  in  the  order  just  submitted.  The  ideal 
method  of  instruction  (see  Principles  of  Instruction)  should, 
therefore,  cause  these  processes  in  pupils. 

(1)  The  attention  of  the  pupil  must  be  directed  to  the  form- 
facts  of  the  object  in  question  and  to  the  teacher's  representa- 
tion of  these  facts.  The  teacher  must  ask  such  questions  and 
give  such  hints,  etc.,  as  may  stimulate  and  help  the  observing 
pupil.  In  many  instances  this  may  need  to  be  many  times 
repeated  before  the  pupil  can  draw  "  from  the  picture,"  i.e., 
imitate  the  teacher's  representation.  It  is  at  the  pupil's  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  his  picture,  however  awkward  such  imita- 
tion may  be  at  first,  that  the  teacher  of  elementary  drawing 
must  aim.     (See  the  First  Principle  of  Instruction.) 

(2)  It  is  not  enough  that  the  elementary  pupil  can  draw  the 
elementary  forms  in  question  ;  he  should  be  taught  to  look  for 
obvious  resemblances  and  possible  applications  until  by  and  by 
that  elementary  form  shall  have  become  a  general  concept  that 
serves  him  in  his  practical  classification  of  objects.  The 
teacher  must,  therefore,  show  the  pupil  how  to  convert  the 
form  in  question  into  familiar  object-forms.  The  happy  sur- 
prise which  this  revelation  will  produce  in  pupils  will  stimu- 
late them  to  look  for  similar  resemblances  in  the  objects  with 
which  they  meet.  These  conversions  of  an  elementary  form 
into  familiar  object-forms,  and  the  teacher's  representation  of 
object-forms  that  obviously  resemble  the  elementary  form  in 
question,  should  be  imitated  just  as  the  elementary  form  itself 
was  imitated.  When  the  pupil  can  do  this  a  great  deal  has 
been  accomplished.  (See  the  Fourth  and  Eighth  Principles  of 
Instruction.) 

(3)  When  the  pupil  has  learned  to  recognize  the  elemen- 
tary form  in  question,  and  to  draw  it  from  the  picture,  and 
to  imitate  the  teacher's  conversions  of  the  form  into  familiar 
object-forms,  as  well  as  his  representation  of  object- forms  that 

22 


338         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

obviously  resemble  the  elementary  form,  he  should  be  taught 
to  draw,  without  the  teacher's  previous  representation,  such 
objects  as  obviously  embody  the  form  in  question.  This  is 
termed  "  drawing  from  the  object,"  and  is  a  long  step  in  ad- 
vance ;  the  pupil  has  now  learned  to  draw  deductively,  which 
is  the  end  aimed  at  in  ideal  instruction.  (See  the  Eighth  and 
Tenth  Principles  of  Instruction.) 

(4)  In  due  time  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  "  draw  from 
problems."  This  task  of  invention  implies  familiarity  with 
the  lines,  surfaces,  and  possible  positions  of  the  elementary 
forms,  together  with  their  technical  description,  and  should 
therefore  not  be  attempted  too  soon.  When  the  right  time  for 
this  work  has  come,  the  teacher  may  send  his  class  to  the 
board  and  dictate  by  line  the  things  to  be  done.  There  are 
three  possible  ways  of  line  dictation  :  (a)  The  teacher  may  dic- 
tate the  direction,  length,  and  character  of  the  lines,  and  expect 
the  pupils  to  produce  them,  thus  inventing  a  picture  ;  (6)  He 
may  propose  a  form  and  dictate  substitutions  of  lines,  as  a 
curve  for  a  straight  lino.  This  is  called  invention  by  line 
substitution  ;  and  (o)  He  may  propose  a  form  and  dictate  sub- 
stitutions of  lines  that  differ  not  only  in  hind  but  also  in  length. 
This  form  of  invention  is  called  designing  by  line. 

(5)  Elementary  pupils  soon  grow  tired  of  one  form.  In 
order  to  keep  up  the  necessary  interest  in  the  form  in  ques- 
tion the  teacher  must  resort  to  various  devices,  such  as  placing 
eggs,  balls,  birds,  etc.,  upon,  near,  or  into  open  forms.  Suit- 
able stories  addressed  to  memory  or  imagination  are  very 
effective  devices.  Teachers  should,  however,  be  careful  not  to 
make  such  devices  too  prominent. 

(6)  It  is  believed  that  elementary  pupils  need  no  text-books 
in  drawing  before  the  fifth  or  sixth  year ;  and  even  then  it  is 
possible  to  get  along  without  them. 

Illustrative  Lessons.  The  following  lessons  are  subjoined 
as  illustrations  of  the  method  just  described.     They  are  de- 


DEAWING  339 

signed  to  illustrate  the  spirit  of  the  method  rather  than  the 
historical  details,  which  must  be  left  to  the  individual  teacher 
under  his  particular  circumstances. 

The  Sphere.  Teacher.  What  do  I  hold  in  my  hand, 
Grace  ?  G.  A  ball.  T.  The  shape  of  a  ball  is  called  Sphere. 
Have  you  ever  seen  pictures  of  a  sphere,  Harry  ?  H.  Yes, 
sir.  T.  I  think  I  know  what  you  would  like  to  do.  H.  I 
would  like  to  make  pictures  myself.  T.  Very  well ;  you  will 
be  able  to  do  so  by  and  by.  Now  look  at  the  ball  in  my 
hand  and  fix  its  shape  in  your  memory.  (Turning  to  the 
board  and  looking  at  the  ball)  Watch  me,  children ;  I  will 
show  you  how  to  make  a  picture  of  this  ball.  (The  teacher 
draws  a  circle  and  adds  a  few  marks  of  expression.)  What 
did  I  do,  Mary  ?  M.  You  drew  a  ring  and  put  little  lines  in 
it ;  you  made  a  picture  of  the  ball  in  your  hand.  T,  You 
may  draw  the  same  picture,  Jane.  (Jane  steps  to  the  board 
or  turns  to  her  paper  and  "  draws  from  the  picture,"  but  looks 
at  the  ball  to  see  if  her  picture  resembles  the  ball.)  T.  Jane, 
this  is  the  right  way  to  hold  your  pencil  or  crayon  (showing 
her).  (Awkward  positions  of  the  body  and  improper  ways  of 
holding  the  pencil  or  crayon  should  be  corrected,  but  individ- 
uality should  not  be  crushed.)  T.  What  have  I  done,  Jacob? 
J.  You  have  changed  the  picture  into  a  tennis-ball  picture  by 
making  a  seam  on  it.  T.  The  class  may  please  try  to  do  what 
I  did.  (They  do  so  with  a  will.)  T.  Think  of  some  object 
that  looks  like  a  ball.  (The  class  name  apples,  oranges,  onions, 
etc.)  T.  Watch  me,  please.  (Looking  at  an  apple,  the  teacher 
draws  it  with  the  stem  on  top.)  Minnie.  You  looked  at  the 
apple  in  your  hand  and  then  made  a  picture  of  it.  I  saw  how 
you  fixed  the  stem.  T.  That  is  the  right  way  to  watch,  Min- 
nie. I  will  draw  a  number  of  apple-pictures,  and  you  may 
copy  them  at  your  seats.  I  will  look  at  your  work  by  and  by, 
to  see  how  well  you  can  draw.  (Drawing  "  from  the  object" 
should  be  gradually  associated  with  drawing  from  pictures.) 


340         PKINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Two  Cube-Paces.  Teacher.  What  do  I  hold  in  my  hand, 
Ralph  ?  R.  A.  box.  T.  How  many  faces  of  the  box  can  you 
see  if  I  hold  it  as  I  do  ?  R.  Two ;  the  one  toward  me,  and 
the  top  face.  T.  Which  face  do  you  think  I  should  draw  first, 
Albert  ?  ^.  I  think  I  would  draw  the  one  toward  me  first. 
(The  teacher  heeds  the  suggestion  and  draws  the  front  face.) 
T.  What  shall  I  do  now?  ^.  I  do  not  know.  T.  Who  can 
help  me  ?  (No  one  sees  the  right  thing  to  do.)  Please  watch 
me.  (The  teacher  fixes  the  centre  of  vision,  draws  the  neces- 
sary receding  lines,  and,  choosing  the  distance  backward,  com- 
pletes the  top  face.)  What  have  I  done,  Helen?  H.  You 
made  a  dot,  drew  lines  from  the  top  corners  of  the  square  to 
that  point,  and  then  drew  another  line  j^arallel  to  the  top  line 
of  the  square,  thus  completing  the  top  face.  (Lessons  on  the 
square,  rectangle,  parallel  lines,  receding  lines,  and  angles  are 
presupposed  in  this  lesson.)  T.  That  is  just  what  I  have  done. 
(Teachers  must  not  expect  perfect  answers  in  these  lessons.) 
The  whole  class  may  please  do  on  your  papers  what  I  did  on 
the  board.  You  may  also  try  to  draw  two  faces  of  objects  that 
you  can  see  or  remember. 

The  Vertical  Cylinder.  T.  What  do  I  hold  in  my  hand, 
Maude  ?  if .  A  tomato  can.  (The  children  laugh.)  T.  The 
shape  of  this  can  is  called  Cylinder.  (The  teacher  writes  the 
word  and  requires  the  children  to  copy  it.)  T.  How  much  of 
the  cylinder  can  you  see  from  your  seat  if  I  hold  it  this  way, 
Harold  ?  iJ.  I  can  see  half  way  round  the  can  and  the  whole 
top.  T.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  top  face  ?  H.  It  is  a  circle. 
T.  Can  you  see  the  bottom,  Rufus  ?  i2.  I  can  see  only  half 
way  round  the  bottom.  T.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  bottom? 
R.  It  is  round  like  the  top.  T.  What  is  the  shape  from 
top  to  bottom,  Grace  ?  G.  It  is  straight.  T.  Please  watch 
me.  What  did  I  do,  Robert  ?  R.  You  drew  a  circle  for  the 
top  of  the  box,  parallel  lines  for  the  sides,  and  a  semicircle  for 
the  rim  of  the  bottom.     T.  What  changes  have  I  made,  An- 


DRAWING  341 

nie  ?  A.  You  put  apples  into  the  box  and  drew  the  picture. 
T.  The  class  may  draw  the  box  with  apples  in  it.  (This  may 
be  done  at  the  seats  or  at  the  board.)  T.  If  your  eye  were 
somewhere  in  the  line  which  I  have  just  drawn,  how  much  of 
the  box  could  you  see  when  I  hold  it  this  way  ?  (The  nine 
possible  positions  should  be  studied  and  drawn,  the  teacher 
drawing  first  and  the  children  imitating.  Various  devices 
should  be  introduced  to  keep  up  interest.  In  subsequent  les- 
sons the  teacher  should  convert  the  cylinder  into  band-boxes, 
stove-pipes,  caps,  hats,  barrels,  etc.,  and  thus  lead  the  pupils 
to  analyze  familiar  objects  into  type-forms.  The  children 
should  also  be  encouraged  to  bring  such  objects  as  seem  to 
embody  the  type-forms  in  question.  Some  of  these  should  be 
drawn  "  from  pictures"  ;  others  "  from  the  object." 

Dictation  by  Line.  (The  black-board  is  preferable  to  tablets 
in  class  dictations.  The  pupils  should  be  expected  to  measure 
"  by  eye"  and  to  draw  "  free-hand."  The  following  dicta- 
tions are  quoted  from  Professor  Augsburg's  excellent  manual, 
"  Elementary  Drawing  Simplified,"  which  should  be  the  com- 
panion of  every  elementary  teacher. 

"  (1)  Draw  a  light  vertical  line  16"  *  long.  This  is  called 
the  median  line.  (2)  Through  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
median  line  draw  a  horizontal  line  projecting  2"  on  each  side. 
(3)  4"  below  this  horizontal  line  draw  another  horizontal  line 
like  it.  (4)  3"  below  the  last  horizontal  line  draw  a  hori- 
zontal line  projecting  4"  on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  (5) 
Through  the  lower  extremity  of  the  median  line  draw  a  hori- 
zontal line  like  the  last  one.  (6)  Connect  the  extremities  of 
the  first  and  second  horizontal  lines  by  vertical  lines.  (7) 
Connect  the  extremities  of  the  second  and  third  horizontal 
lines  with  oblique  lines.  (8)  Connect  the  extremities  of  the 
third  and  last  horizontal  lines  with  vertical  lines." 

*  One  indioe  stands  for  feet,  and  two  indices  for  inches. 


342         PKINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

III.  INTERMEDIATE  DRAWING. 

The  important  features  of  intermediate  drawing  present 
themselves  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Subjects  of 
Intermediate  Drawing,  and  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction. 

The  Subjects  of  Intermediate  Drawing-.  The  following 
subjects  of  study  belong  to  the  intermediate,  or  rational,  course 
of  drawing.  Two  thirtj-minute  lessons  a  week  for  about  four 
years  should  probably  be  devoted  to  this  course  : 

(1)  Derivative  forms  obtained  by  division  of  the  sphere, 
cube,  cylinder,  etc.  In  other  words,  the  thread  of  the  course 
should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  elementary  course,  but  such 
figures  as  can  be  obtained  by  one,  two,  or  more  divisions  of  the 
first  forms  must  be  studied  instead  of  the  elementary  wholes. 
From  the  sphere,  for  example,  we  may  thus  derive  the  hemi- 
spherCj  the  quarter-sphere,  etc.  From  the  cube  may  be  derived 
plinths,  triangular  prisms,  oblong  blocks,  etc.  (The  methods- 
student  should  be  required  to  make  and  name  the  various 
divisions.) 

(2)  Conversions  into  less  obvious  forms,  together  with  recog- 
nition of  the  type-forms  in  the  objects  which  pupils  meet. 

(3)  Compositions  of  the  derivative  figures,  the  number  of 
forms  to  be  represented  being  determined  by  the  number  that 
may  have  been  studied. 

(4)  Invention  by  line  and  form. 

(5)  The  elements  of  map-drawing  in  connection  with  geog- 
raphy and  history,  and  working  drawings  in  connection  with 
modelling  and  the  elements  of  manual  training. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Intermediate  Drawing-. 
(1)  It  is  probably  not  advisable  to  dispense  altogether  with 
drawing  "  from  the  picture"  in  the  intermediate  course  (see  the 
first  three  Principles  of  Instruction),  but  drawing  "  from  the 
object"  and  "  problem"  must  become  the  rule. 

(2)  In  addition  to  such  drawings  as  the  teacher  may  see  fit 


DRAWING  343 

to  use  as  "preparations,"  he  must  strive  to  sujDervise  the  minds 
of  his  pupils  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  ideal  method 
described  in  elementary  drawing. 

(3)  Inasmuch  as  objects  to  be  drawn  in  this  course  should 
first  be  analyzed  into  type-forms,  the  teacher  must  study  how 
to  plo.Ge  objects  in  the  best  positions.  In  order  to  keep  up 
proper  interest  in  such  tasks,  there  should  be  an  interesting 
collection  of  materials  on  hand  for  class  use,  and  the  teacher 
should  frequently  draw  interesting  pictures  as  a  stimulus  to 
the  pupil's  ambition. 

(4)  Suitable  text-books,  such  as  those  of  Professor  Augs- 
burg, the  Prang  system,  etc.,  should  be  used  as  supplements 
in  intermediate  drawing. 

Remarh.  The  methods-students  should  be  required  to  write 
out  illustrative  lessons  for  intermediate  work. 

IV.  HIGHER  DRAWING. 

The  important  features  of  the  higher,  or  special,  course  of 
drawing  present  themselves,  as  in  the  case  of  intermediate 
drawing,  under  two  heads  :  (1)  The  Subjects  of  Higher  Draw- 
ing, and  (2)  The  Method  of  Instruction. 

The  Subjects  of  Higher  Drawing.  The  following  sub- 
jects belong  to  the  higher  course  of  drawing.  The  course 
requires  complex  reasonings  and  is  designed  to  fit  students  for 
special  vocations.  The  tasks  of  this  course  must  for  various 
reasons  be  divided  between  high  schools,  normal  schools,  and 
technical  schools : 

(1)  Derivative  forms  obtained  by  composition  of  various 
forms.  In  other  words,  the  logical  thread  of  the  other  courses 
is  to  be  preserved,  but  while  the  thread  is  a  series  of  concen- 
trations on  each  of  the  elementary  forms  in  order,  the  other 
elementary  forms  and  derivatives  should  be  correlated  with 
the  leading  one. 

(2)  The  type-groups  should  be  converted  into  the  object- 


344         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

forms  of  nature,  history,  and  imagination,  and  objects  of 
nature,  history,  and  imagination  should  be  interpreted  into 
the  type-forms  of  which  they  may  be  embodiments. 

(3)  Landscapes,  historic  groups,  fictions,  etc. 

(4)  Invention  by  line,  form,  and  idea.  This  is  the  sphere 
of  industrial,  architectural,  and  high-art  drawing. 

(5)  The  various  species  of  map-drawing  should  be  made 
the  subject  of  special  study  on  the  part  of  teachers,  geogra- 
phers, surveyors,  etc. 

(6)  Teachers  should  understand  the  pedagogics  of  drawing. 
The  Method  of  Instruction  in  Higher  Drawing.     The 

method  of  higher  drawing  is  virtually  the  same  as  that  of  in- 
termediate drawing.  The  higher  phases  of  the  subject,  the 
special  purposes  in  view,  and  the  individuality  of  the  teacher 
must,  of  course,  determine  the  necessary  adjustments.  The 
pedagogics  of  drawing  is  a  problem  of  psychology  and  econ- 
omy, and  must  obviously  be  studied  from  those  stand-points. 
Suitable  text-books  are  the  necessary  supplements. 

V.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  DRAWING. 

To  appreciate  the  importance  of  drawing,  one  must  under- 
stand its  efficiency  as  a  means  of  culture  and  instruction.  The 
following  topics  deserve  special  consideration :  (1)  The  Cul- 
ture-Value of  Drawing ;  (2)  The  Instruction- Value  of  Draw- 
ing ;  (3)  The  Practical  Value  of  Drawing;  and  (4)  The 
Training  of  Teachers  of  Drawing. 

The  Culture- Value  of  Drawing-,  Properly  taught,  draw- 
ing is  the  possible  means  of  exercising  the  whole  pupil  (intel- 
lect, feeling,  and  will).  (The  methods-student  should  be  re- 
quired to  prove  this  statement.)  The  efficiency  of  drawing  as 
a  means  in  the  culture  of  the  eye,  the  taste,  and  the  hand  has 
long  been  known.  (1)  Drawing  requires  accurate  and  com- 
plete observation,  and  therefore  improves  the  eye.  (2)  It  re- 
quires the  most  accurate  comparisons  of  distances,  proportions, 


DEAWING  345 

directions,  etc.,  and  thus  improves  judgment.  And  inasmuch 
as  perfect  rather  than  imperfect  objects  are  usually  selected  for 
study,  drawing  develops  aesthetic  judgment,  or  taste.  This 
tendency  is  augmented  by  the  connection  into  which  drawing  is 
brought  with  painting,  etc.  (3)  Drawing  employs  the  hand  in 
connection  with  the  eye  to  express  judgments,  and  thus  not 
only  promotes  a  most  important  correlation,  but  also  properly 
subordinates  the  hand  and  eye  thus  brought  into  correlation 
to  the  will.  This  correlation  of  the  hand  and  eye,  and  their 
subordination  to  the  will,  is  one  of  the  most  important  ends  in 
view  in  education.  (See  the  chapter  on  the  Nature  of  Educa- 
tion.) 

The  Instruction  Value  of  Drawing-.  It  is  especially 
through  the  study  of  "  form"  as  required  in  drawing  that  the 
mind  discovers  the  expressive  power  of  forms,  and  thus  vir- 
tually acquires  a  key  to  the  interpretation  of  many  thoughts, 
emotions,  and  volitions,  as  embodied  in  Nature  and  Art.  The 
interpretations  of  Nature  and  Art  which  thus  become  possible 
greatly  increase,  as  appears  from  statistics,  the  appreciation 
of  Nature  and  Art,  and  thus  add  materially  to  human  happi- 
ness. This  result  is  one  of  the  right  ideals  in  education.  (See 
the  Fifth  General  Principle  of  Education.) 

The  Practical  Value  of  Drawing-.  The  practical  advan- 
tages of  drawing  are  as  follows  :  (1)  It  is  the  almost  indispen- 
sable servant  of  text-books,  furnishing  pictures  that  surpass 
the  text  in  power  to  express  ideas,  feelings,  and  purposes.  (2) 
It  is  equally  indispensable  in  oral  instruction.  Statistics  show 
that,  all  other  things  being  equal,  the  school-teacher  who  under- 
stands drawing  surpasses  his  fellows  in  the  power  to  interest 
his  pupils,  and  thus  in  the  power  to  instruct.  (3)  It  is  an 
indispensable  equipment  of  artists,  architects,  surveyors,  etc. 
(4)  The  habits  and  tastes  which  drawing  develops  fit  pupils 
for  better  service  in  various  vocations.  "  The  Committee  of 
Fifteen"  says,  "  It  prepares  the  future  workman  for  a  more 


346         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

useful  and  lucrative  career,  inasmuch  as  superior  taste  com- 
mands higher  wages  in  the  finishing  of  all  goods." 

The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Drawing.  If  drawing  is 
as  important  as  just  explained,  it  devolves  on  the  public 
schools  to  offer  adequate  courses.  Teachers,  accordingly,  need 
the  following  training  :  (1)  Thorough  training  in  drawing  it- 
self. Such  training,  as  elsewhere  stated,  is  needed  in  the  art 
as  well  as  in  the  science  of  teaching  drawing.  Without  such 
proficiency  the  teaching  of  drawing  is  likely  to  be  a  soriy  fail- 
ure. (2)  Thorough  training  in  the  principles  and  methods  of 
teaching  drawing  is  necessary.  Since  this  topic  is  the  burden 
of  the  present  chapter,  it  is  hoped  that  the  matter  may  not 
require  further  discussion. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  347 

CHAPTER    XII. 

MANUAL  TEAINING. 

The  pedagogics  of  manual  training  is  concerned  with  (1) 
The  Nature  of  Manual  Training,  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Man- 
ual Training. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

"  Manual  training,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  would 
mean  simply  the  training  of  the  hand ;  but  as  currently  used 
with  reference  to  education,  the  words  indicate  such  employ- 
ment of  the  hand  as  will  at  the  same  time  train  the  eye  to 
accuracy  and  the  mind  to  attention.  The  scientific  element,  or 
the  teaching  of  science  pure  and  simple,  is  not  necessarily  in- 
volved in  the  expression.  As,  however,  pure  science  can 
scarcely  be  taught  without  looking  somewhat  toward  its  appli- 
cations, so  manual  training  cannot  be  made  an  effective  edu- 
cational process  except  by  constant  reference  to  the  broad 
foundation  in  the  mathematical,  physical,  and  natural  sciences 
upon  which  it  rests."  Two  subjects  deserve  our  special  atten- 
tion :  (1)  The  Tasks  of  Manual  Training,  and  (2)  The  His- 
tory of  Manual  Training. 

The  Tasks  of  Manual  Training.  In  manual  training,  as 
defined  in  the  foregoing  quotation,  the  pupil  is  taught  how  to 
use  hand- tools  in  the  interests  of  the  hand,  eye,  and  mind. 
This  complex  purpose  implies  (1)  Instruction,  and  (2)  Exer- 
cises. 

Manual- Training  Studies.  The  manual-training  pupil  needs 
very  definite  knowledge  about  the  following  things:  (1)  The 
construction  of  hand-tools,  (2)  The  uses  to  which  these  tools 
are  to  be  put,  (3)  The  care  which  must  be  taken  of  hand-tools, 


348         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

(4)  The  history  of  hand-tools,  (5)  The  choice  of  materials 
(paper,  wood,  metals)  according  to  their  qualities,  and  (6)  Me- 
chanical drawing,  blue  prints,  etc. 

Manual- Training  Exercises.  Inasmuch  as  manual  training 
aims  at  the  correlation  of  the  hand,  the  eye,  and  the  mind,  the 
pupil  must  put  all  instructions  into  practice.  Exercises  in 
construction  must,  therefore,  be  assigned.  It  is  not  enough 
that  in  these  exercises  the  pupil  is  required  to  draw  what  is 
proposed  for  construction,  and  to  measure  off  the  proposed 
parts :  he  must  also  be  required  to  justify  his  choice  of  tools 
and  materials,  and  be  held  responsible  for  the  condition  of  his 
tools. 

The  History  of  Manual  Training.  "  The  principle  of  the 
manual-training  school  exists  in  the  kindergarten,  and  for 
that  principle  we  are  indebted  directly  to  Froebel,  and  indi- 
rectly to  Pestalozzi,  Comenius,  Rousseau,  and  Bacon.  But  it 
was  reserved  for  Russia  to  solve  the  problem  of  tool-instruc- 
tion by  the  laboratory  process,  and  make  it  the  foundation  of 
a  great  reform  in  education.  The  initiatory  step  was  taken  in 
1868  by  M.  Victor  Delia- Yos,  director  of  the  Imperial  Tech- 
nical School  of  Moscow." 

Manual  Training  in  the  United  States.  The  Russian  system 
of  manual  trainins;  soon  found  favor  in  America.  Dr.  John 
D.  Runkle,  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology in  1876,  was  greatly  pleased  with  the  collection  of 
hand-tools  and  samples  of  shop-work  which  he  saw  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  recommended  the  system,  and  it  was  adopted  by 
the  famous  Boston  institution.  "  The  second  manual-training 
school  in  this  country  was  founded  as  a  department  of  Wash- 
ington University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  by  Dr.  C.  M.  Wood- 
ward. The  first  class  was  graduated  in  June,  1883."  "Con- 
siderable progress  in  manual  training  has  been  made  in  the 
State  agricultural  colleges  of  the  country."  "  The  most  pro- 
nounced success  has  been  achieved  at  Purdue  University,  In- 


MANUAL  TRAINING  349 

diana,  under  the  directorship  of  Professor  William  F.  M.  Goss, 
who  graduated  from  the  School  of  Mechanic  Arts  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  in  1879."  The  most  compre- 
hensive manual-training  school  in  the  world  is  Professor  Felix 
Adler's  School  in  New  York  City.  The  Chicago  Manual- 
Training  School,  the  first  independent  educational  institution 
of  the  kind  in  the  world,  was  founded  in  1883.  Dr.  Henry 
H.  Belfield  was  chosen  the  fi.rst  director.  The  school  was  well 
equipped  from  the  beginning.  It  oiFers  courses  in  ^'  carpentry, 
wood-turning,  pattern-making,  iron  chipping  and  filing,  forge- 
work,  brazing  and  soldering,  the  use  of  machine-shop  tools," 
and  in  such  other  branches  as  seem  to  be  necessary  supple- 
ments. 

The  State  of  Pennsylvania  has  welcomed  manual  training 
into  many  of  her  schools.  The  system  was  introduced  in  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  experimentally,  about  twenty  years 
ago.  It  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  Russian  idea,  and  the  course 
is  substantially  that  of  the  Chicago  school.  Manual  training 
was  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  in  Girard  College, 
Philadelphia,  in  1882,  and  the  experiment  has  proved  a  very 
great  success.  The  public  schools  of  Philadelphia  offer  manual 
training  to  all  grades  of  pupils.  "  There  are  kindergartens 
(sub-primaries)  for  children  from  three  to  six  years  of  age,  and 
an  industrial  art  department  for  all  the  students  (of  both  sexes) 
of  the  grammar  schools.  In  this  latter  department  the  course 
of  training  comprises  '  drawing  and  design,'  '  modelling,' 
'  wood-carving,'  '  carpentry  and  joinery,'  and  '  metal-work.' 
Special  provisions  have  been  made  for  boys  of  the  Twelfth 
grade,  or  any  higher  grade,  provided  the  boys  are  fourteen 
years  of  age."  Dr.  James  MacAlister  deserves  the  gratitude 
of  the  city  for  his  part  in  the  adoption  of  the  system. 

Prospects.  The  prospects  are  that  manual  training  will 
gradually  find  a  place  in  all  the  States  of  our  country  and  in 
all  civilized  nations.     About  twenty -five  States  have  already 


350         PRINCIPLES  AND   METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

introduced  the  system  in  certain  schools.  (1)  Among  the  great 
cities  that  offer  courses  of  manual  training  are  Boston,  New 
Haven,  Albany,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  St.  Paul,  and 
Omaha.  (2)  The  normal  schools  are  almost  unanimous  in 
adopting  the  manual  system.  (3)  Among  the  colleges  and 
universities  that  offer  extensive  courses  in  manual  training  are 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  Lehigh  University,  Cornell,  and 
Atlanta.  (4)  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh, 
Toledo,  and  other  cities  offer  excellent  courses  of  manual 
training  to  girls.  (5)  Although  manual  training  in  the  public 
schools  of  Europe  can  scarcely  be  called  educational,  since  the 
pupils  usually  make  articles  for  household  use,  the  purpose 
therefore  bemg  purely  industrial,  and  the  mental  culture  re- 
ceived the  mere  accident  of  a  mechanical  pursuit,  yet  there 
are  begiuning  to  be  approaches  to  the  Russian  idea.  This  is 
probably  the  tendency  now  in  Denmark,  France,  Germany, 
Norway,  Sweden,  etc.  In  Naas,  in  Sweden,  there  is  a  semi- 
nary for  the  training  of  sloyd  teachers.  (6)  The  prospects  of 
our  rural  schools  seem  to  be  brightening.  "  It  is  sometimes 
said  that  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  country  schools  have  less 
need  of  this  kind  of  instruction  than  those  of  town  or  city 
schools,  for  the  reason  that  their  daily  employments  about  the 
farm  or  in  the  household  give  them  a  readiness  in  perform- 
ing common  tasks  which  the  less  favored  city  boy  seldom 
acquires  ;  but  while  there  is  truth  in  this  observation,  it  is  also 
true  that  the  range  of  such  employments  is  comparatively  lim- 
ited, and  that  they  are  not  generally  so  conducted  as  to  culti- 
vate habits  of  precision  and  carefulness  in  the  performance  of 
them.  Systematic  manual  training  would  give  to  such  boys 
and  girls  a  variety  of  exercises  and  of  skills  which  only  the 
favored  few  can  otherwise  acquire.  We  believe  that  the  nat- 
ural aptitude  for  such  exercises,  fostered  as  it  is  by  their  cir- 
cumstances, would  produce  even  better  practical  results  there 
than  in  schools  of  the  other  kind.     The  case  of  Sweden  fur- 


MANUAL  TRAINING  351 

nishes  most  interesting  evidence  of  the  ease  and  success  with 
which  such  a  system  can  be  introduced  into  rural  schools  when 
it  is  once  undertaken,  and  the  manifold  advantages  resulting 
from  it.  But  whatever  may  be  the  fact  upon  this  point,  it 
requires  but  a  moment's  reflection  to  see  that  the  most  serious 
obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  such  a  system  throughout  the 
entire  system  of  schools  is,  at  present,  the  lack  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  properly  trained  teachers."  This  obstacle  can  be 
removed.  "  The  experience  of  Sweden  and  of  France  show 
conclusively  that  a  body  of  teachers  can  be  very  rapidly 
formed."  "  In  Sweden  it  is  found  that  an  ordinary  teacher, 
by  spending  six  weeks  in  one  year  and  five  weeks  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  in  a  special  course  of  manual  training,  can  acquire 
all  that  is  necessary  for  teaching  its  elements  successfully." 
It  is  earnestly  recommended  (1)  "  That  the  law  require  every 
district,  in  its  subsequent  erection  of  buildings  for  school  pur- 
poses, to  make  suitable  provisions  for  a  room  or  rooms  to  be 
used  for  the  purposes  of  manual  training" ;  and  (2)  "  That 
provision  be  made  or  authorized  for  the  grouping  of  rural 
schools,  for  purposes  of  manual  training,  in  such  a  way  that 
either  the  scholars  from  schools  included  in  each  group  may 
go  in  sections  from  each  school  to  some  one  conveniently  lo- 
cated, there  to  receive  instruction  in  manual  training,  or  that 
a  special  instructor  in  manual  training  may  be  appointed, 
whose  time  shall  be  assigned  to  each  school  in  turn." 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING-. 
The  important  features  of  instruction  in  manual  training 
may  be  conveniently  studied  under  the  following  heads :  (1) 
The  Courses  of  Manual  Training ;  (2)  The  Methods  of  In- 
struction ;  and  (3)  The  Importance  of  Manual  Training. 


352         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

I.  THE  COURSES  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

The  ends  in  view  and  the  pupil's  possibilities  suggest  three 
courses  of  manual  training :  (1)  The  Elementary  (Imitative) 
Course ;  (2)  The  Intermediate  (Kational)  Course ;  and  (3)  The 
Higher  (Special)  Course.  (See  Principles  of  "  Knowledge" 
and  "  Instruction.") 

The  Elementary  Course.  The  studies  and  exercises  of 
all  the  courses  must  be  selected  as  means  to  ends. 

Ends.  The  child  learns  to  do  a  hundred  things  by  doing 
them  long  before  it  can  understand  the  theory  of  the  things. 
It  is  economy  in  education  to  give  all  such  lessons,  not  only 
to  gain  so  much  time,  but  especially  also  to  develop  those  fun- 
damental ideas  and  judgments  upon  which  to  build  subsequent 
training  for  the  hand,  eye,  and  mind.  These  are  the  ends, 
therefore,  of  the  elementary  course. 

Elementary  Studies  and  Exercises.  In  pursuit  of  the  ends 
in  view,  the  first  six  years  of  the  child's  school-life  may  profit- 
ably be  devoted  to  the  following  course  of  studies  and  exer- 
cises in  manual  training :  (1)  Exercises  in  kindergarten  con- 
structions and  inventions.  Beginners  in  school  may  lay 
splints,  build  with  blocks,  plait,  fold,  weave,  and  model. 
Many  of  these  exercises  can  be  combined  as  busy  work  with 
other  lessons.  (2)  Exercises  in  writing  and  drawing,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  elementary  courses  (see  pages  137,  335).  There 
should  also  be  such  elementary  exercises  in  mechanical  draw- 
ing as  may  prepare  the  pupil  for  exercises  with  hand-tools. 
(3)  Exercises  in  the  uses  and  care  of  simple  hand-tools,  such 
as  the  jack-knife,  hammer,  gimlet,  scissors,  etc.  In  these  ex- 
ercises card-board  and  wood  can  be  worked  into  various  easy 
structures.  The  purpose  of  training  the  mind  in  correlation 
with  the  hand  and  eye  should  always  be  kept  in  mind.  The 
necessary  place  for  work,  and  the  appropriate  materials  and 
tools,  are  not  hard  to  supply. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  353 

The  Intermediate  Course.  Just  as  the  ends  of  this  course 
are  diflferent  from  those  of  the  elementary  course,  so  the  studies 
and  exercises  of  the  course  must  be. 

Ends,  The  purposes  of  the  intermediate  course  in  manual 
training  are  as  follows  :  (1)  To  develop  such  manual  skill  as 
should  be  common  to  the  great  mass  of  our  population ;  (2) 
To  add  to  such  skill  so  much  theory  as  may  be  necessary  to 
make  tool-practice  rational  as  well  as  mechanical ;  and  (3)  To 
make  the  course  a  supplementary  means  in  the  education  of  the 
hand,  eye,  and  mind.  It  should  be  possible  to  attain  these 
ends  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  sixteen,  since  the  great 
majority  of  pupils  leave  school  at  about  sixteen  years  of 
age. 

Intermediate  Studies  and  Exercises.  In  pursuit  of  the  ends 
in  view,  the  following  intermediate  course  of  training  is  sug- 
gested :  (1)  Drawing  as  proposed  in  the  chapter  on  that  sub- 
ject (see  pages  342,  343).  (2)  Paper  sloyds  and  wood  sloyds 
of  the  geometrical  forms,  the  construction  to  be  preceded  by 
working  drawings  made  by  the  pupil,  and  by  the  teacher's 
written  or  printed  directions  as  to  the  tools  to  be  used  and  the 
proper  care ;  (3)  Exercises  and  studies  in  wood-carving,  mod- 
elling, carpentry  and  joinery,  etc.,  according  to  the  capacity 
and  time  of  the  pupil.  These  tasks  must  be  very  carefully 
graded.  In  carpentry  and  joinery,  special  attention  should  be 
paid  to  working-drawings  and  judgment  in  the  use  of  tools. 
There  should  be  simple  exercises  in  hammering,  chiselling, 
squaring,  halving,  dovetailing,  mortise  and  tenon  work, 
boring,  planing,  sawing,  grooving,  framing,  gauging,  bevel- 
ling, dowelling,  champfering,  mitreing,  wedging,  sandpapering, 
filing,  etc.  Theory  should  be  combined  with  practice  in  such 
proportion  as  may  seem  best  for  the  particular  pupil  in  ques- 
tion. Two  or  three  hours  a  week  should  be  given  to  these 
tasks. 

Higher  Courses  in  Manual  Training.     The  special  ends 

23 


354         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  view  in  higher  courses  of  manual  training  will,  of  course, 
determine  various  distinct  studies  and  exercises. 

Ends.  The  following  distinct  purposes  may  be  recognized 
in  higher  courses  of  manual  training :  (1)  To  develop  such 
superior  skill  as  may  be  desirable  in  our  high-school  pupils, 
provisions  for  both  sexes  being  made ;  (2)  To  prepare  pupils 
for  higher  institutions  just  as  they  are  prepared  in  other 
studies ;  (3)  To  prepare  teachers  to  teach  manual  training 
and  to  make  such  apparatus  as  they  may  need  in  teaching 
other  branches ;  and  (4)  To  equip  men  and  women  for  special 
vocations  in  the  industrial  world. 

Higher  Studies  and  Exercises.  (1)  In  high  schools  the  les- 
sons in  manual  training  will  differ  from  the  intermediate 
course  chiefly  in  their  greater  complexity,  but  also  in  the  cor- 
relation of  various  tasks  with  lessons  in  physics  and  mathe- 
matics. (2)  The  manual-training  tasks  of  preparatory  schools 
must  be  determined,  as  in  case  of  other  studies,  by  reference  to 
the  curriculum  of  the  higher  institution  for  which  preparation 
is  intended.  (3)  Normal  schools  should  offer  courses  corre- 
sponding to  the  work  which  ought  to  be  expected  of  them  in 
the  public  schools,  etc.  In  the  interests  of  physiology,  anatomy, 
psychology,  physics,  color-work,  etc.,  there  should  be  courses 
in  chart-making,  clay-modelling,  photography,  mechanical 
drawing,  etc.  The  greatest  pains  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  teacher's  course  an  effective  instrument  in  his  own  educa- 
tion, and  to  fit  him  or  her  to  teach  manual  training  effectively. 
(4)  For  outline  of  courses  in  higher  institutions  the  reader  is 
respectfully  referred  to  the  catalogues  of  Pennsylvania  State 
College,  Cornell  University,  Lehigh  University,  and  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology. 

II.  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

The  features  that  are  of  special  interest  at  this  point  may 
conveniently  be  treated  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  Mate- 


MANUAL  TRAINING  355 

rial  Equipments ;  (2)  Preparation  of  Lessons ;  and  (3)  Recita- 
tion of  Lessons. 

Material  Equipments.  The  introduction  of  manual  train- 
ing into  our  schools  requires  (1)  a  room  suitably  equipped 
with  work -benches,  etc.,  (2)  the  tools  adapted  to  the  purposes 
in  hand,  and  (3)  a  supply  of  card-board,  wood,  etc. 

The  Manual- Training  Room.  In  country  districts  economy 
requires  that  a  shop  be  fitted  up  in  such  a  way  as  to  accommo- 
date pupils  of  all  ages.  In  towns  and  cities  a  special  labora- 
tory should  be  provided  for  the  schools  of  each  grade,  the 
pupils  of  such  schools  coming  for  their  lessons  at  set  times, 
and  to  a  teacher  in  charge  of  such  shops.  Normal  schools, 
colleges,  etc.,  require  a  series  of  rooms  for  courses  in  carpentry, 
turnery,  moulding,  etc.,  the  ends  in  view  determining  the 
special  provisions. 

Manual- Training  Tools.  In  district  schools  the  common 
hand-tools  in  carpentry,  joinery,  etc.,  must  suffice.  Inas- 
much as  the  same  shop  can  be  made  to  suffice  for  the  various 
schools  of  one  grade,  towns  and  cities  can  affi^rd  to  purchase 
a  greater  variety  of  tools.  The  special  purposes  of  manual 
training  in  normal  schools  and  special  schools  must  determine 
the  variety  of  tools  to  be  used. 

Working  Materials.  All  manual-training  laboratories  must, 
of  course,  be  supplied  with  suitable  paper  for  draAvings,  blue 
prints,  sloyds,  etc. ;  with  soft,  medium,  and  hard  wood,  adapted 
to  the  purposes  in  hand ;  and  with  such  other  materials  as 
teachers  may  require. 

Preparation  of  Manual-Training  Lessons.  Manual- 
training  lessons  require  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers 
and  pupils. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation.  (1)  The  working  materials 
must  be  selected  and  put  into  available  shapes.  The  teacher 
should  also  be  perfectly  familiar  with  the  natural  history,  the 
physical  qualities,  and  industrial  values  of  the  materials  to  be 


356         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

used  in  all  lessons.  (2)  The  ideal  teacher  of  manual  training 
inspects  his  equipments  daily,  studies  the  powers  of  the  tools 
with  which  he  must  deal,  and  keeps  every  instrument  in 
working  condition.  (3)  Every  lesson  should  have  a  definite 
end  in  view.  The  teacher  must  ascertain  this  end  in  the 
present  progress  of  the  pupil,  and  plan  such  exercises  as  shall 
serve  as  means  to  the  end  in  view.  The  successive  recitations 
must  hang  well  together,  and  constitute  a  perfect  series  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex.  To  this  end  the  lesson-plan  must 
so  combine  tools  in  various  constructions  as  to  develop  the 
highest  manual  skill  in  connection  with  the  best  training  for 
the  eye  and  mind.     (See  Goss.) 

The  Pupil's  Preparation.  (1)  It  is  not  to  be  expected  of 
elementary  pupils  that  they  prepare  assigned  lessons,  since 
they  need  constant  supervision.  (2)  Pupils  of  grammar 
schools,  high  schools,  and  special  schools  must  be  required  to 
do  various  things  between  recitations.  Normal-school  stu- 
dents, for  example,  should  be  required  to  prepare  working- 
drawings,  blue-prints,  etc.,  according  to  assigned  problems, 
and  to  finish  charts  for  various  pedagogical  uses,  paper- 
sloyds,  etc.  The  time  and  labor  thus  demanded  of  pupils 
should  not  be  too  great,  and  proper  differences  should  be  ob- 
served in  masculine  and  feminine  assignments. 

Recitation  of  Manual-Training  Lessons.  The  plan  of 
manual-training  recitations  is  determined  by  the  ends  in  view, 
i.e.,  by  the  tasks  of  the  various  grades. 

Elementary  Recitation.  Since  the  tasks  of  the  elementary 
grade  are  chiefly  those  of  the  kindergarten,  drawing,  form- 
study,  etc.,  the  lessons  must,  of  course,  be  imitative  in  essence. 
In  other  words,  the  teacher  illustrates  and  the  pupils  imitate. 

Intermediate  Lessons.  (1)  With  intermediate  pupils  theory 
must  be  combined  with  imitation.  In  other  words,  the  teacher 
must  illustrate  the  use  and  care  of  the  tools  to  be  used,  test 
the  pupils'  knowledge  of  working  materials,  etc.,  point  out 


MANUAL  TRAINING  357 

sources  of  information,  impart  useful  and  interesting  general 
instruction,  discipline  the  pupils'  judgment,  correct  false  ideas, 
supervise  exercises,  etc.  The  best  possible  order  should  be 
preserv^ed  throughout  these  recitations.  (2)  Lessons  to  be 
prepared  should  be  definitely  assigned,  necessary  suggestions 
offered,  etc.  (3)  In  the  interests  of  economy  and  discipline  a 
supply-account  with  pupils  must  be  opened.  (4)  An  effective 
system  of  inspecting  work  done  is  indispensable.  The  teacher 
must  make  sure  that  all  work  done  by  pupils  in  recitation 
hours  and  between  recitations  is  the  pupils'  own  work.  All 
passing  marks  must  be  recorded  in  the  pupil's  favor.  The 
pupil  must  be  made  to  recognize  that  absolute  honesty  is  the 
indispensable  test  of  superior  worth  in  manual-training  attain- 
ments. 

III.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

The  interests  of  pedagogics  require  at  least  a  brief  notice 
of  the  importance  of  manual  training.  Our  reflections  may 
be  summed  up  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  Culture,  (2) 
Instruction,  (3)  Utility,  and  (4)  The  Training  of  Teachers. 

The  Culture-Value  of  Manual  Training".  The  correla- 
tion of  the  hand,  eye,  and  mind,  as  required  in  educational 
manual  training,  makes  it  one  of  the  most  effective  instru- 
ments in  modern  education.  This  correlation  itself,  as  those 
who  understand  the  subject  teach  us,  is  one  of  the  fundamen- 
tal conditions  of  mental  growth.  The  student  of  pedagogics 
will  find  it  easy  to  show  that  the  whole  pupil  (intellect,  feel- 
ing, will,  and  body)  is  brought  into  effective  service  in  the 
various  manual  training  lessons. 

The  Instruction- Value  of  Manual  Training".  As  a  sup- 
plement of  physics,  pedagogics,  and  other  studies,  manual 
training  offers  illustrations,  confirms  theories,  and  stimulates 
scientific  observations.  The  knowledge  thus  acquired,  together 
with  its  inspiration,  is  its  own  high  reward. 


368         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Utility  of  Manual  Training.  From  an  industrial 
stand-point  manual  training  needs  no  apology.  The  history 
of  its  introduction  and  progress  is  its  sufficient  defence. 

The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Manual  Training.  The 
importance  of  manual  training  and  its  rapid  introduction  into 
our  schools  call  for  trained  teachers,  and  especially  for  teach- 
ers trained  in  the  pedagogics  of  the  subject.  (See  Ham's 
"  Manual  Training,"  "  Bench  "Work  in  Wood,"  by  Goss,  and 
"Industrial  Education,"  1887-89,  Pennsylvania  Commis- 
sion. 


PHYSIOLOGY  359 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  pedagogics  of  physiology  is  concerned  with  two  topics : 
(1)  The  Nature  of  Physiology,  and  (2)  Instruction  in  Phy- 
siology. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OP  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Three  general  topics  deserve  our  present  attention  :  (1)  The 
Subject  of  Physiology ;  (2)  The  Psychology  of  Physiology ; 
and  (3)  The  History  of  Physiology. 

The  Subject  of  Physiology.  In  the  widest  application 
of  the  term  physiology  denotes  the  study  of  the  organs,  func- 
tions, and  health  of  the  human  body. 

Organs  of  the  Body.  The  body  is  a  composite  structure, 
every  part  of  which  has  some  special  office  to  perform.  It  is 
in  this  sense  of  the  term  that  we  speak  of  the  stomach,  the 
liver,  the  teeth,  etc.,  as  the  organs  of  the  body.  In  a  very 
general  way  the  organs  of  the  body  may  be  classified  as  bones, 
muscles,  and  nerves. 

Functions  of  the  Body.  The  work  for  which  an  organ  of 
the  body  is  designed  is  termed  its  function.  It  is  in  this  sense 
that  we  speak  of  mastication,  salivation,  deglutition,  digestion, 
assimilation,  etc.  In  a  very  general  way  the  functions  of  the 
body  may  be  classified  as  locomotion,  conservation,  and  sen- 
sation. 

Health  of  the  Body.  When  all  the  organs  of  the  body  per- 
form their  offices  effectively,  so  that  life  continues  in  perfec- 
tion, the  body  is  said  to  be  healthy.  The  condition,  as  statis- 
tics show,  depends  especially  upon  heredity,  environment, 
food,  sleep,  exercise,  clothing,  and  mental  life.  The  fact  that 
physical  health  has  so  much  to  do  with  our  general  success 


360         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

makes  the  preservation  of  health  and  its  improvement  the 
first  concern  of  education. 

The  Psychology  of  Physiology.  The  learner  becomes 
acquainted  with  the  facts  of  the  body  by  observation,  he  dis- 
covers the  laws  of  his  physical  life  by  induction,  and  makes 
these  his  rules  of  conduct  by  deduction. 

The  History  of  Physiology.  The  study  of  physiology 
began  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  but  it  was  not  until 
modern  times  that  physiology  became  a  branch  of  study  in 
our  public  schools.  Its  recent  introduction  into  all  the  grades 
of  our  schools  is  a  great  step  in  advance.  The  masses  are 
thus  put  into  possession  of  knowledge  that  in  the  most  prac- 
tical sense  is  power  indeed.  The  world  at  large  is  coming  to 
see  the  importance  of  such  knowledge,  and  teachers  are  re- 
quired to  give  the  same  evidence  of  physiological  training 
as  of  training  in  other  branches. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Teachers  of  physiology  should  understand  the  following 
features  of  the  work  :  (1)  The  Courses  of  Instruction ;  (2) 
The  Methods  of  Instruction ;  and  (3)  The  Importance  of 
Physiology. 

Courses  of  Physiology.  The  demands  of  culture  and  the 
needs  of  life  require  three  courses  in  physiology.  The  inter- 
ests of  general  education  require  a  common-school  course  in 
physiology ;  the  needs  of  teachers  and  psychologists  must  be 
supplied  in  special  courses ;  the  medical  profession  needs  as 
extensive  a  course  as  can  be  found. 

Common-School  Physiology.  (1)  The  common-school  course 
in  physiology  should  begin  in  the  pupil's  earliest  years  and 
continue  through  all  grades.  The  first  years  should  be  de- 
voted to  such  facts  as  children  ought  to  know.  The  subjects 
to  be  taught  must  be  left  to  the  teacher's  judgment,  though 
elementary  text-books  should  give  direction  to  the  teacher's 


PHYSIOLOGY  361 

choice  of  subjects.  The  obvious  laws  of  the  body,  as  well  as 
the  facts,  should  be  studied  in  grammar  grades.  The  high 
school  should  begin  to  inquire  into  complex  features  of  physi- 
cal life. 

(2)  The  lessons  of  lower  grades  should  be  made  as  concrete 
and  attractive  as  possible.  Pictures,  drawings,  charts,  etc., 
will  often  be  found  very  helpful,  but  books  are  out  of  place 
in  elementary  physiology.  Practical  experiments  should  be 
introduced  in  grammar  grades,  and  a  brief  text-book  should 
be  made  the  guiding  thread  of  the  lessons.  Lessons  should 
be  assigned,  prepared,  and  recited.  Two  or  three  lessons  of 
twenty  minutes  each  week  will  suffice.  The  pupil  should  be 
led  from  facts  to  principles,  and  from  principles  to  rules  of 
life.  The  study  of  physiology  in  high  schools  should  be 
made  as  thoroughly  scientific  as  possible.  In  addition  to  the 
regular  work  which  is  to  be  done  in  text-books,  special 
problems  should  be  assigned  to  the  pupils,  the  pupils  making 
original  observations  and  arriving  at  independent  conclusions. 
Special  lessons  on  stimulants,  narcotics,  poisons,  and  emer- 
gencies are  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Higher  Physiology.  (1)  The  teacher  needs  an  extensive  and 
accurate  training  in  physiology.  The  smatterer  will  teach 
untruths  and  harm  the  cause  of  health.  In  addition  to  a 
complete  course  in  physiology,  a  thorough  training  in  the 
methods  of  teaching  it  is  indispensable.  (2)  The  study  of 
some  phases  of  psychology  is  impossible  apart  from  physi- 
ology. The  psychologist  needs  a  sj)ecial  training  in  the  phy- 
siology of  the  nervous  system.  (3)  It  is  not  within  our 
scope  to  go  into  details  with  regard  to  the  physiology  of  the 
medical  profession. 

III.  IMPORTANCE  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  merits  of  physiology  as  a  means  in  education  are  most 
conveniently  summed  up  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  The 


362         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Culture- Value  of  Physiology ;  (2)  The  Instruction- Value  of 
Physiology ;  and  (3)  The  Life- Value  of  Physiology. 

The  Culture-Value  of  Physiology.  The  teacher  who 
understands  his  business  can  make  physiology  the  means  of 
superior  culture.  The  study  of  physiology  is  an  ideal  oppor- 
tunity in  the  development  of  right  habits  of  observation,  in- 
duction, and  deduction.  To  be  of  any  value  all  the  observa- 
tions must  be  accurate,  and  many  conclusions  at  which  the 
pupil  arrives  by  induction,  as  well  as  the  life-rules  at  which 
he  arrives  by  deduction,  must  undergo  continual  correction. 
Since  the  concrete  welfare  of  the  pupil  is  constantly  at  stake 
in  these  necessities,  they  tend  to  develop  not  only  the  intellect 
but  also  the  heart  and  will. 

The  Instruction- Value  of  Physiology.  As  a  consequence 
of  the  close  relation  between  the  body  and  the  mind,  the 
knowledge  of  the  body  is  often  a  preparation  toward  a  better 
understanding  of  the  mind.  Many  of  the  mysteries  of  life 
so  dreadful  to  the  uninitiated  disappear  in  the  light  of  physi- 
ology. 

The  Life-Value  of  Physiology.  The  study  of  physiology 
tends  to  save  life,  to  promote  health  and  happiness,  to  improve 
mental  and  physical  labor,  and  to  decrease  immorality. 


PHYSICAL  CULTUEE  363 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

PHYSICAL   CULTUEE. 

The  pedagogics  of  physical  culture  has  to  do  with  two  gen- 
eral problems :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Physical  Culture,  and  (2) 
Instruction  in  Physical  Culture. 

A.  THE  NATURE  OF  PHYSICAL  CULTURE. 

An  exhaustive  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  physical  develop- 
ment is  impossible  at  this  point.  Two  topics,  however,  de- 
serve our  attention :  (1)  The  Necessity  of  Physical  Culture, 
and  (2)  The  History  of  Physical  Culture. 

The  Necessity  of  Physical  Culture.  The  instinctive 
prompting  to  play  disappears  when  the  body  matures ;  its 
mission  has  then  been  performed.  It  must,  however,  not  be 
inferred  that  when  the  body  has  arrived  at  its  maturity  phy- 
sical activity  is  no  longer  necessary.  In  this  matter,  as  in 
others,  the  guardianship  of  the  body  is  merely  transferred 
from  instinct  to  reason.  Inquiry  into  the  process  of  physical 
life  confirms  this  theory.  The  process  of  physical  life  consists 
of  two  complementary  processes  commonly  denoted  by  the 
terms  assimilation  and  elimination,  and  this  complementary 
relation  must  be  maintained  in  maturity  as  well  as  in  the 
stages  of  development.  The  agencies  in  the  maintenance  of 
this  complementary  relation  are  nutrition  and  repair,  muscu- 
lar activity,  and  neurosis.  The  remarkable  thing  in  this 
complex  agency  is  the  fact  that  muscular  activity  is  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  nutrition  and  repair  and  of  normal 
neurosis.  (See  Physiology.)  A  system  of  muscular  exercises 
must,  accordingly,  be  devised  for  the  development  and  health 
of  the  body. 


364         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Relation  of  the  Body  and  Mind,  The  mind,  as  psycho- 
physics  teaches,  is  in  the  closest  sympathy  with  the  body. 
Abnormal  neurosis  is  always  a  mental  misfortune.  The 
mental  life  of  a  person  whose  physical  health  is  perfect  is 
generally  also  normal,  and  much  of  a  man's  success  can  often 
be  traced  directly  to  a  fine  physical  system.  Accordingly,  the 
importance  of  physical  culture  is  to  be  measured  not  only  by 
its  physical,  but  also  by  its  intellectual  and  moral  conse- 
quences. 

The  History  of  Physical  Culture.  Systematic  physical 
culture  probably  attained  its  highest  possibilities  in  ancient 
times.  The  preservation  of  nations  then  depended  very  much 
upon  physical  prowess  in  personal  combat,  as  in  Greece  and 
Eome.  Then,  too,  Greece  "paid  so  much  attention  to  pure 
gymnastics  because  the  beautiful  was  worshipped  as  the  highest 
manifestation  of  the  divine."  The  ascetic  misconception  of 
the  relation  of  the  body  and  mind  led  the  Middle  Ages  to 
despise  the  body  and  ignore  its  just  claims.  It  was  not  until 
Locke's  time  that  educators  began  to  understand  the  true 
relation  of  the  body  and  mind.  The  Philanthropinists  laid 
great  stress  on  physical  culture.  The  "new"  education,  ac- 
cepting the  teachings  of  Christ  and  the  conclusions  of  physio- 
logical psychology,  has  for  some  years  squarely  faced  the 
problem  of  physical  culture  in  our  schools.  The  recent  intro- 
duction of  pliysiology  into  the  schools,  and  the  provisions 
made  by  normal  schools  and  special  schools  for  the  training 
of  teachers,  will  do  much  toward  the  intelligent  general  intro- 
duction of  physical  culture.  The  old  prejudice  against  the 
body  is  fast  disappearing  from  the  minds  of  the  general  pub- 
lic, as  may  be  seen  in  the  increased  interest  of  all  classes  in 
gymnasiums  and  athletics.  The  time  is  fast  approaching 
when  we  shall  require  all  teachers  to  give  as  much  evidence 
of  their  fitness  to  teach  physical  culture  as  reading  and  arith- 
metic.    It  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that  in  the  almost  violent 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE  365 

reaction  in  favor  of  the  body  the  American  people  may  not 
prostitute  pliysical  culture  to  the  interests  of  brute  force  and 
acrobatic  show. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSICAL  CULTURE. 

In  order  to  do  effective  work  in  physical  culture  the  teacher 
must  understand,  (1)  Classification  of  Exercises ;  (2)  Princi- 
ples of  Physical  Culture ;  (3)  Courses  of  Exercises ;  (4) 
Methods  of  Instruction  ;  (5)  The  Adoption  of  a  System ;  and 
(6)  The  Importance  of  Physical  Culture. 

Classification  of  Pliysical  Exercises.  The  most  conve- 
nient and  therefore  the  most  appropriate  classification  of  phy- 
sical exercises  is  the  common  division  into  (1)  Lower-Limb 
Movements ;  (2)  Upper- Limb  Movements  ;  and  (3)  Trunk 
Movements.  Some  exercises  belong  purely  to  only  one  of 
these  classes,  others  are  a  combination  of  two  classes,  while 
many  of  the  best  exercises  belong  partly  to  all  classes. 

Lower-Limb  Movements.  Among  the  common  exercises  for 
the  lower  limbs  are  walking,  running,  jumping,  and  leaping. 
Swimming,  bicycling,  base-ball,  and  foot-ball  involve  espe- 
cially the  lower  limbs,  but  belong  at  the  same  time  to  the 
other  classes. 

Upper-Limb  Movements.  Among  the  common  exercises  for 
the  arms  are  swinging,  lifting,  and  throwing.  Indian  clubs 
or  dumb-bells  may  be  added  to  the  swinging  movements. 
Exercises  with  poles,  bars,  chest- weights,  etc.,  as  well  as 
climbing  and  carrying,  are  complex  forms  of  lifting.  Balls, 
quoits,  nine-pins,  etc.,  are  convenient  in  throwing. 

Trunk  Movements.  Among  the  common  exercises  for  the 
trunk  are  swimming,  riding,  and  boxing.  Since  these  move- 
ments are  generally  impossible,  substitutions  must  be  found. 
The  most  convenient  substitutes  are  breathing  exercises,  imi- 
tations of  rowing,  systematic  bendings  of  the  body,  and  imi- 
tation boxing.     These  exercises  are  commonly  combined  with 


366         PEINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

others  meant  more  especially  for  the  upper  and  lower  limbs 
and  for  the  neck. 

Principles  of  Physical  Culture.  In  physical  culture,  as 
in  other  studies,  the  courses  of  exercises  and  the  methods  of 
work  should  be  selected  as  means  to  ends.  A  knowledge  of 
the  following  principles  is  essential  to  intelligent  selection  in 
these  matters. 

1.  The  right  ideal  in  physical  culture  is  to  develop  the  body 
into  the  best  instrument  of  life. 

In  the  statement  of  this  principle  the  term  life  is  to  be  taken 
in  its  largest  sense,  the  sense  in  which  it  was  used  in  the  Fifth 
General  Principle  of  Education  (page  39).  To  be  the  best 
instrument  of  life  in  the  largest  sense,  the  body  must  have 
health,  strength,  skill,  and  grace.  (1)  Health  is  the  condition 
of  normal  mental  life,  as  set  forth  in  the  first  part  of  this  chap- 
ter. (2)  Strength  is  the  indispensable  equipment  of  labor  and 
endurance.  (3)  Skill,  the  ability  to  do  a  thing  quickly  and 
well,  is  an  economic  advantage  without  which  no  one  can  suc- 
cessfully compete  in  the  arts  of  life.  (4)  Grace,  it  is  true,  is 
not  a  physical  necessity.  It  is,  however,  a  great  social  advan- 
tage, and  as  such  often  has  practical  and  moral  consequences. 
Moreover,  there  is  conscious  happiness  in  the  possession  of  a 
fine  body,  especially  when  this  possession  is  combined  with 
the  best  refinements. 

In  order  that  health,  strength,  skill,  and  grace  may  prove  a 
blessing  the  body  must  be  made  the  servant  of  intelligence, 
refinement,  and  highest  purposes.  Apart  from  right  habits 
of  subordination,  physical  advantages  often  prove  to  be  a 
curse. 

2.  It  is  through  corresponding  exercises  in  muscular  contrac- 
tions and  expansions  that  all  desirable  physical  virtues  must  be 
developed. 

Since  contraction  and  expansion  are  the  only  possibilities  of 
muscular  activity,  all  the  possibilities  of  physical  culture  must 


PHYSICAL  CULTURE  367 

lie  along  these  lines.  It  is  through  obedience  to  the  laws  of 
habit  that  the  possibilities  of  physical  culture  must  be  realized. 
In  other  words,  the  exercises  of  any  system  of  physical  cul- 
ture should  be  exercises  in  those  things  which  are  to  become 
the  virtues  of  the  body.  Accordingly,  health  must  be  devel- 
oped through  normal  use  of  the  organs  in  question,  strength 
can  be  developed  only  by  a  long  course  of  strong  contractions 
and  expansions,  skill  results  from  practice  in  rapid  move- 
ments, and  grace  is  the  reward  of  cultivated  self-possession 
in  muscular  movements.  The  will  must  be  required  to  sub- 
ordinate all  exercises  to  the  dictates  of  intelligence  and  re- 
finement. 

(3)  The  natural  stages  of  development  must  be  respected  in 
physical  culture. 

Experiment  seems  to  show  that  the  natural  series  of  play- 
interests  is  a  manifestation  of  the  trend  of  the  needs  of  the 
maturing  body.  It  has  also  been  proved  that  the  series  of  the 
pupil's  possibilities  coincides  with  the  series  of  his  interests 
and  needs.  Thus  we  learn  that  in  order  to  adapt  exercises  to 
individual  pupils  the  teacher  must  study  individual  interests. 
Inasmuch  as  there  is  a  general  similarity  of  individual  interests, 
a  true  system  of  exercises  can  be  founded  upon  the  general 
trend  of  play-interests.  The  earlier  physical  movements  are 
generally  imitative,  the  later  ones  rational  and  original.  A 
thread  of  concentrations,  each  emphasis  being  the  centre  of  cor- 
relations, seems  to  run  through  both  the  imitative  and  the 
rational  series  of  the  physical  activities  of  the  body.  In  other 
words.  Nature  seems  to  have  special  epochs  of  development 
for  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  will  not,  while  laying 
stress  on  any  particular  part,  neglect  the  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  parts  to  which  Nature  attends  successively  are 
those  which  seem  to  fall  behind  in  the  race  of  symmetrical 
development.  This  suggestion  of  Nature  must  ever,  there- 
fore, be  the  teacher's  guide  in  dealing  with  individual  pupils. 


368         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Courses  of  Exercises.  The  following  outline  is  based 
upon  the  principles  of  physical  culture,  and  is  designed  to  be 
a  guide  to  teachers  : 

Courses  of  Exercises. 

I.  Imitation  Course. 

1.  Contractions  and  expansions  of  leg  muscles. 

(1)  Normal. 

(2)  Strong. 

(3)  Quick. 

(4)  Graceful. 

2.  Contractions  and  expansions  of  arm  muscles. 

Same  as  above. 

3.  Contractions  and  expansions  of  body  muscles. 

Same  as  above. 

II.  Rational  Course. 

1.  Complex  contractions  of  muscles. 

2.  The  physiology  of  exercises. 

III.  Professional  Course. 

1 .  Superior  attainments  in  muscular  culture. 

2.  The  theory  of  physical  culture. 

3.  The  pedagogics  of  physical  culture.  * 

The  Method  of  Instruction.  In  ideal  instruction  the 
recitation  presupposes  preparation.  These  two  topics  deserve 
our  attention.     (See  Principles.) 

Preparation  in  Physical  Culture.  (1)  The  possibilities  for 
good  or  evil  are  so  great  in  physical  exercises  that  the  teacher 
must  make  the  very  best  preparations.  He  should  choose 
exercises  as  means  to  definite  ends  in  the  system  which  he 
may  have  adopted.  The  ability  to  illustrate  the  exercises  to  be 
assigned  is  indispensable  in  the  imitative  course.     The  physi- 

*  The  first  course  is  suitable  for  lower  grades,  tlie  second  for  high  schools, 
and  the  third  for  normal  and  special  schools. 


PHYSICAL  CULTUEE  369 

ology  of  the  proposed  exercises  should  be  thoroughly  mastered 
before  recitation.  The  plan  of  the  recitation,  its  steps  and 
details,  should  be  mastered  in  the  most  definite  sense.  (2)  In 
the  imitative  course  the  pupil's  preparations  must  consist 
mainly  of  repetitions  of  exercises  with  which  the  pupil  has 
become  familiar.  In  the  rational  course  the  pupil  must  also 
be  required  to  study  regularly  assigned  lessons  on  the  physi- 
ology of  exercises  already  practised  or  of  those  to  be  used  in 
the  next  recitation.  In  the  professional  course  the  require- 
ments of  the  rational  course  must  be  variously  supplemented 
with  special  reference  to  the  pedagogics  of  the  subject. 

The  Recitation  in  Physical  Culture.  (1)  In  the  imitative 
course  the  recitation  must  consist  of  observation  and  imita- 
tion. In  other  words,  the  teacher  must  illustrate  the  move- 
ments to  be  taught ;  the  pupil  must  observe  and  imitate.  The 
movements  should  be  repeated  until  the  ends  in  view  have 
been  attained,  but  the  pupil's  strength  and  patience  must  never 
be  taxed  too  severely.  (2)  In  the  rational  course  the  reci- 
tation may  consist  partly  of  theory  and  partly  of  practice,  or 
separate  periods  may  be  devoted  to  each.  The  recitation  in 
theory  will  resemble  a  recitation  in  physiology.  The  recita- 
tion in  movements  must  consist  of  commands  and  obedience. 
In  other  words,  the  teacher  states  what  is  to  be  done,  illus- 
trates complex  requirements,  commands  successive  movements 
of  strength,  rapidity,  and  grace,  while  the  pupils  promptly 
obey  every  order  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  Prompt  obe- 
dience is  of  utmost  importance  as  a  means  in  subordinating 
the  body  to  the  mind  and  as  a  training  in  concerted  moral 
actions.  (3)  The  recitation  plans  of  the  professional  course  in 
physical  culture  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  inter- 
mediate course. 

Adoption  of  a  System.  In  our  times  the  teacher  has 
many  alternatives  from  which  to  select  a  system  of  exercises 
for  a  school.     Among  the  best  systems  of  physical  culture  are 

24 


370         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  Swedish,  the  military,  and  the  Preece  systems.  Probably 
the  Swedish  and  the  military  systems  should  be  combined  in 
higher  courses  to  produce  the  best  results.  The  best  system 
for  public  schools  is  the  Preece  system;  it  aims  at  proper 
physical  habits  and  is  decidedly  moral  and  sesthetic.  The 
most  gratifying  results  have  been  obtained  in  many  cities. 
The  Preece  manual  for  teachers,  published  by  C.  W.  Bardeen, 
Syracuse,  New  York,  is  very  complete,  and  deserves  a  place 
in  every  teacher's  library. 

The  Importance  of  Physical  Culture.  Systematic  phy- 
sical culture  is  not  absolutely  necessary  in  country  districts 
where  pupils  find  many  opportunities  outside  of  school  hours 
to  develop  their  bodies,  and  yet  there  are  reasons  why  such 
a  system  as  the  Preece  or  the  Swedish  should  be  introduced 
into  every  rural  school.  Improper  habits  of  walking,  stand- 
ing, sitting,  breathing,  etc.,  are  alarmingly  common  even  in 
the  rural  schools.  In  towns  and  cities  systematic  physical 
culture  seems  indispensable.  Opportunities  for  playing,  etc., 
are  harder  to  find,  school  grounds  are  often  quite  too  small, 
and  the  out-door  hours  too  few.  In  the  interests  of  body, 
mind,  and  morals,  city  schools  and  town  schools  should  adopt 
some  system  of  physical  culture.  (See  jSTecessity  of  Physical 
Culture.) 


SINGING  371 


CHAPTER   XY. 

SINGING. 

The  problems  with  which  the  pedagogics  of  singing  is  con- 
cerned are  as  follows :  (1)  The  Nature  of  Singing,  and  (2) 
Instruction  in  Singing. 

A.   THE  NATURE  OF  SINGING. 

The  necessary  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  is  the 
first  concern  of  the  ideal  teacher.  It  is  assumed  that  in  the 
case  of  singing  the  teacher  should  understand  the  following 
phases  of  the  subject :  (1)  The  Production  of  Tones ;  (2)  The 
Representation  of  Tones ;  (3)  Reading ;  and  (4)  The  History 
of  Singing. 

The  Production  of  Tones.  In  singing  we  have  to  do 
with  sounds  just  as  in  painting  we  have  to  do  with  colors. 
These  sounds  of  the  voice  are  termed  Tones.  The  tones  in 
question  are  the  results  of  physical  vibration,  and  they  differ 
in  the  number  of  necessary  vibrations,  in  extent  of  time,  in 
quality  of  voice,  in  stress  of  voice,  etc.  The  production  of 
tones  is  therefore  concerned  with  (1)  Pitch,  (2)  Time,  (3) 
Quality,  (4)  Force,  etc. 

Pitch.  The  distinction  of  higher  and  lower  tones  is  termed 
Pitch.  In  the  production  of  tones  of  definite  pitch,  the  mind 
is  not  conscious  of  the  number  of  necessary  vibrations  of  the 
vocal  chords,  but  only  of  such  vocal  coordination  as  will  re- 
sult in  the  desired  pitch.  This  coordination  consists  of  differ- 
ence in  the  tension  of  the  vocal  chords,  and  depends  for  much 
of  its  success  on  faithful  practice.  For  fuller  explanation  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Natural  Philosophy. 


372        PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Time.  The  prolongation  of  a  tone  is  termed  its  Time. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  long  and  short  tones,  of  slow  and  quick 
time.  Two  things  are  necessary  in  the  production  of  tones  of 
definite  length,  namely,  control  of  the  vocal  chords  and 
judgment  in  the  measure  of  the  tones  in  question.  As  in  the 
case  of  pitch,  practice  tends  to  make  perfect. 

Quality.  The  differences  of  voice  denoted  by  the  words 
sweet,  mellow,  brilliant,  etc.,  are  termed  Quality,  or  Tim- 
bre. Some  of  these  qualities  are  voluntary  possibilities; 
others  are  individual  differences  over  which  the  persons 
in  question  have  almost  no  power.  Systematic  voice-cult- 
ure will,  however,  do  much  to  improve  the  qualities  of  any 
voice. 

Faroe.  The  differences  of  stress  denoted  by  the  words  soft, 
medium,  loud,  etc.,  are  termed  Force.  The  variations  in 
question  are  voluntary  possibilities  limited  only  by  the  physical 
powers  of  the  singer. 

Rhythm.  In  a  metrical  succession  of  tones  the  system  of 
accent  and  time  is  termed  Ehythm.  The  word  "time"  is 
often  synonymous  with  "  rhythm."  Thus,  when  we  speak  of 
"  three-fourths"  time  we  mean  a  succession  of  tones  in  which 
three  "quarter"  notes  (or  equivalents)  form  the  measures 
regularly  with  one  accent  to  each  measure  and  in  regular 
position.  It  thus  follows  that  rhythm  is  a  derivative  of  time 
and  force. 

Melody.  Rhythmical  succession  of  single  tones  is  termed 
Melody.  The  word  "  tune"  is  a  popular  substitute,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  He  cannot  keep  a  tune." 

Harmony.  Simultaneous  tones  of  such  difference  in  pitch 
as  satisfies  the  aesthetic  sense  are  said  to  be  Harmonious. 
One  pulse  of  such  harmony  is  termed  a  Chord.  The  syste- 
matic construction  of  successive  chords  is  termed  Composition. 
The  fundamental  pitch  in  melody  and  composition  is  termed 
the  Key.     Systematic  progress  from  the  key  is  termed  the 


SINGING  373 

Scale.  Change  of  key  in  melody  and  composition  is  termed 
Transposition.  * 

The  Representation  of  Tones.  In  singing  as  a  species 
of  language  there  are  three  logical  steps  :  (1)  The  production 
of  tones,  the  visible  representation  of  tones,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  tones  thus  represented  to  the  eye.  It  is  with  the 
second  task  that  we  have  to  do  at  this  point. 

Necessity.  The  necessity  of  visible  representation  of  tones 
appears  from  two  considerations  :  (1)  Apart  from  such  repre- 
sentation song  would  generally  perish  with  its  first  produc- 
tion, and  (2)  The  visible  representation  of  tones  is  an  indis- 
pensable means  in  the  pupil's  education. 

Method.  All  methods  of  representing  tones  to  the  eye 
have  their  basis  in  psychophysics,  and  the  historic  develop- 
ment of  such  methods  is  subject  to  the  accidents  of  invention. 
In  their  fuller  aspects  these  considerations  belong  to  the  his- 
tory of  music.  It  is  with  the  conventional  method  of  repre- 
sentation that  we  are  concerned  at  this  point.  (1)  Diiference 
in  "  pitch"  is  generally  represented  to  the  eye  by  means  of 
differences  in  distance  from  a  base  line.  On  the  conventional 
"  staff"  the  pitch  in  question  is  denoted  by  the  letters  c,  d,  e, 
etc.,  or  by  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  or  by  the  names  do,  re,  mi, 
etc.,  or  by  the  shapes  of  the  notes  employed,  "  Melody"  and 
its  development  in  "  composition"  are  generally  represented 
by  progress  from  left  to  right  on  the  staff,  probably  in  imita- 
tion of  our  modes  of  "  writing."  The  "  key"  of  a  melody  or 
composition  is  generally  denoted  by  means  of  so-called  "  flats 
and  sharps."  The  "  scale"  consists  of  a  natm'al  "  octave"  of 
tones  and  its  repetition.    Letters,  names,  etc.,  are  employed  in 

*  Those  features  of  tone-production  which  may  he  summed  up  under 
the  head  of  "pronunciation,"  although  of  the  highest  importance  to  ar- 
tistic singing,  constitute  the  special  domain  of  "  Voice  Culture,"  whose 
purpose  it  is  to  develop  such  vocal  technique  as  may  completely  express 
the  mental  states  of  the  singer. 


374         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

its  description.  (2)  Difference  ia  "  time"  is  generally  repre- 
sented to  the  eye  by  means  of  differences  in  the  form  of  the 
"  notes."  (3)  Differences  in  "  quality '^  and  "  force"  are  gener- 
ally represented  to  the  eye  by  means  of  technical  terms  or 
equivalent  signs,  as  con  expresdone,  pianissimo,  p,  /,  etc.  (4) 
"  Rhythm"  is  represented  to  the  eye  by  means  of  the  divi- 
sion of  the  "  staff"  into  "  measures"  composed  somewhat  reg- 
ularly of  longer  and  shorter  tones,  the  "  theme"  of  a  song 
determining  whether  the  measures  are  to  be  iambs,  trochees, 
anapests,  dactyls,  or  some  other  arrangement.  Difference  in 
rhythmic  speed  is  indicated  on  the  staff  by  means  of  technical 
marks,  as  in  the  case  of  "  quality"  and  "  force."  Artistic  pro- 
nunciation is  supervised  by  similar  means. 

Reading-.  In  its  entirety  "  singing  from  notes"  consists  of 
two  complementary  phases  in  the  following  order  :  (1)  Instruc- 
tion, and  (2)  Eendition. 

Instruction.  The  process  of  "singing  from  notes"  begins 
with  the  singer's  mental  construction  of  the  "  tune"  repre- 
sented on  the  "  staff."  The  conditions  of  success  in  this  pro- 
cess are  (1)  the  singer's  mastery  of  the  system  of  representa- 
tion, and  (2)  the  power  to  construct  mentally  that  which  is 
represented  physically.  The  former  task  is  possible  for  the 
common  mind  ;  the  latter  is  the  prerogative  of  talent. 

Rendition.  Oral  construction  begins  where  instruction  ends, 
and  completes  the  process  of  "  singing  from  notes,"  inasmuch  as 
it  is  the  mind's  mode  of  expressing  its  contents  and  conveying 
its  moral  messages.  The  conditions  of  great  success  are  (1) 
intellectual  mastery  of  means,  (2)  spirituality,  and  (3)  exercise. 

The  History  of  Singing.  The  purpose  in  hand  forbids 
extensive  reference  to  the  history  of  singing.  The  subject, 
however,  demands  some  attention.  The  "  place"  which  sing- 
ing now  occupies  in  our  schools  will  be  better  understood  by 
reference  to  its  history.  The  following  topics  will,  therefore, 
be  briefly  considered :  (1)  The  development  of  singing  as  a 


SINGING  376 

study ;  (2)  Its  institutional  services ;  and  (3)  Its  introduction 
into  schools. 

The  Evolution  of  Singing.  Simple  melody,  without  nice 
discrimination  between  the  difFeieut  degrees  of  pitch,  was  prob- 
ably the  limit  of  musical  attainment  for  a  long  period  of  time 
in  the  earliest  history  of  the  race.  "  The  Greeks  reduced 
musical  intervals  to  mathematical  ratios,  introduced  the  chro- 
matic scale,  and  distinguished  the  major  and  minor  intervals 
in  the  diatonic  scale."  Harmony  was  born  much  later.  "  In 
the  sixteenth  century  music  was  cultivated  with  great  devotion 
and  success  in  Italy."  Oratorios  and  operas  were  the  fruits 
of  this  devotion.  "  Operatic  music  culminated  in  Italy  in 
Kossini  of  the  present  century."  Then  followed  the  German 
masters,  Haydn,  Weber,  and  others.  France  was  not  far  be- 
hind, and  produced  such  men  as  Auber,  Meyerbeer,  and  Hal- 
evy.  England  and  English  singers  come  last  in  the  list  of 
great  eflPorts  in  the  history  of  music. 

The  Institutional  Services  of  Singing.  Singing,  like  its  in- 
strumental associate,  has  ever  been  the  welcome  guest  of  society, 
the  indispensable  handmaid  of  religious  worship,  the  spirit  of 
valor  in  war,  the  divinest  ideal  of  art,  and  a  mighty  friend  of 
education.  The  most  ancient  as  well  as  the  most  modern 
peoples  have  held  music  in  the  highest  esteem.  (See  General 
History  and  History  of  Education.) 

The  History  of  Singing  in  Schools.  Probably  all  civilized 
nations  paid  some  attention  to  singing  in  schools.  Among 
the  Oriental  nations  the  Egyptians  and  the  Jews  laid  great 
stress  on  singing  as  means  of  culture.  Singing  was  an  essen- 
tial element  in  the  schools  of  Greece,  and  Greek  philosophers 
bad  much  to  say  about  the  merits  of  music.  Rome  followed 
somewhat  in  the  footsteps  of  Greece.  Singing  belonged  to  the 
curriculum  of  the  early  Christian  schools,  and  was  the  queen 
of  the  celebrated  seven  "  liberal  arts"  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Modern  education  has  given  an  honorable  place  to  singing. 


376         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

In  Germany,  France,  and  other  European  states  singing  lias 
become  a  common-school  study.  America  is  ready  to  make 
singing  a  common-school  study.  In  many  cities  singing  is 
taught  as  systematically  as  reading  and  writing.  The  normal 
schools  offer  suitable  courses  in  singing,  and  school  boards  are 
waking  up  to  the  importance  of  singing  as  a  means  in  educa- 
tion. The  prospects  are  that  singing  will  become  a  universal 
study  in  our  schools. 

B.  INSTRUCTION  IN  SINGINQ. 

The  special  pedagogical  interests  of  singing  are  conveniently 
considered  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  The  Necessary 
Courses ;  (2)  Singing  in  the  Pu])lic  Schools ;  and  (3)  The 
Importance  of  Singing. 

I.  COURSES  IN  SINGING. 

The  nature  of  singing,  together  with  the  requirements  of 
culture  and  the  demands  of  life,  determine  the  courses  of 
singing.  (See  Principles.)  But  since  the  requirements  of  the 
subject  and  of  culture  are  satisfied  by  progress  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex,  etc.,  in  the  development  of  lessons,  only  the 
demands  of  "  life"  deserve  special  consideration  at  this  point. 
The  following  topics  accordingly  deserve  attention  :  (1)  Sing- 
ing for  the  Masses ;  (2)  The  Course  of  Singing  for  Teachers ; 
and  (3)  The  Course  for  Specialists  in  Singing. 

Singing  for  the  Masses.  Instruction  in  singing  should 
begin  in  the  concrete,  i.e.,  with  simple  melodies.  The  songs  for 
children,  as  Froebel  suggests,  should  be  selected  with  special 
reference  to  their  value  as  a  means  in  the  general  culture  and 
discipline  of  the  pupil.  The  nature  of  singing  requires  that 
the  first  technical  instruction  should  consist  of  exercises  in  (1) 
pitch  and  the  natural  scale,  (2)  time  and  simple  rhythm,  (3) 
timbre,  and  (4)  force.  Exercises  in  representation  and  reading 
should  be  combined  with  lessons  on  pitch,  rhythm,  time,  etc., 


SINGING  377 

almost  from  the  beginning.  Sharps  and  flats  should  be  first 
introduced  in  connection  with  simple  melody.  A  course  in 
singing  from  notes  and  in  voice-culture  should  follow  a  course 
in  chords  and  part  songs.  If  singing  deserves  a  place  in 
common  schools,  it  deserves  the  place  as  a  means  of  culture, 
as  a  source  of  happiness,  and  as  a  means  in  life.  (See  Fifth 
General  Principle  of  Education.)  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  ut- 
most importance  in  mapping  out  a  course  of  singing  for  the 
common  schools  to  inquire  into  the  moral,  aesthetic,  and  prac- 
tical value  of  the  course.  The  importance  of  singing  in 
homes,  society,  church,  etc.,  should  not  be  forgotten. 

The  Course  of  Singing  for  Teachers.  Since  the  power 
of  imitation  is  the  pupil's  first  great  possibility  in  the  arts, 
economy  requires  that  teachers  of  singing  take  as  thorough  a 
course  in  singing  as  possible.  The  teacher  of  singing  should, 
of  course,  know  more  than  he  will  be  required  to  illustrate. 
As  a  stimulus  to  artistic  teaching  the  teacher  needs  a  course 
of  training  in  "  composition"  and  "  voice."  A  course  of 
reading  in  musical  literature  is  of  great  importance.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  course  in  singing,  the  teacher  needs  a  thorough 
training  in  the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching  singing. 

The  Course  for  Specialists  in  Singing.  The  purpose  in 
hand  does  not  require  extensive  reference  to  higher  courses  in 
the  divine  art  of  singing.  It  will  suffice  at  this  point  to  call 
attention  to  the  extended  courses  in  "  voice"  (including  the 
physical  technique  as  well  as  the  "  soul"  training),  in  "  thor- 
ough bass,"  etc.,  which  are  possible  for  those  whose  capacity 
and  opportunity  warrant  the  attempts.  Those  courses,  of 
course,  constitute  the  domain  of  technical  schools. 

II.  SINGING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

The  problems  with  which  we  are  especially  concerned  at 
this  point  are :  (1)  The  Preparation  of  Lessons,  and  (2)  The 
Recitation  in  Singing. 


378         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  Preparation  of  Lessons.  An  ideal  school  requires 
preparation  on  the  part  of  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation.  It  is  not  enough  that  the 
teacher  of  singing  has  taken  a  course  in  singing  and  the  peda- 
gogics of  singing.  The  best  teachers  believe  in  "  daily  study" 
as  a  source  of  inspiration,  power,  and  economy.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  teacher  of  singing  fix  upon  some 
special  "  end"  for  each  recitation,  that  he  plan  the  necessary 
steps  before  the  recitation,  that  he  select  the  best  means 
(black-board,  charts,  etc.),  and  that  he  settle  upon  the  most 
effective  method  of  using  his  means  in  the  attainment  of  his 
ends. 

The  PupiVs  Preparation.  (1)  Formal  preparation  of  les- 
sons is  not  to  be  expected  of  beginners  in  singing.  (2)  When 
pupils  in  singing  are  old  enough  to  study  "  notes"  formally, 
lessons  may  be  assigned  as  in  other  branches.  (3)  In  higher 
and  special  courses  the  teacher  must,  of  course,  insist  on  prac- 
tice between  recitations. 

The  Recitation  in  Singing.  The  nature  of  the  subject 
determines  the  tasks  of  the  recitation  in  singing,  while  the 
needs  of  the  pupil  determine  the  right  method  of  work. 

Tashs  of  the  Recitation  in  Singing.  Lessons  on  pitch,  scales, 
time,  melody,  representation,  reading,  etc.,  must  consist  of  (1) 
instruction  to  reach  the  pupil's  intellect  and  feelings,  and  (2) 
exercises  for  the  pupil's  voice  and  will.  In  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  former  task  the  teacher  is  subject  to  the  principles 
of  ordinary  instruction  ;  in  the  latter  he  is  subject  to  the  law 
of  the  formation  of  "  habit,"  inasmuch  as  voice-culture  con- 
sists essentially  in  forming  right  habits  of  voluntary  utter- 
ance. 

The  Recitation  Method  in  Singing.  (1)  The  scientific 
method  of  instruction  is  as  applicable  to  singing  as  to  other 
studies.  The  pupil  learns  the  facts  of  pitch,  time,  force,  rep- 
resentation, etc.,  by  "  observation"  ;  he  passes  from  facts  to 


SINGING  379 

laws  by  "  induction,"  and  back  to  practical  methods  by  "  de- 
duction." (2)  In  the  development  of  right  habits  of  pitch, 
force,  etc.,  the  pupil  must  be  required  to  do  whatever  is  to  be- 
come habit  until  it  actually  becomes  liabit.  These  necessary 
repetitions  must  be  so  varied  and  adapted  to  the  interests  of 
the  pupil  as  not  to  weary  him.  A  skilful  use  of  the  black- 
board, charts,  part  songs,  etc.,  will  generally  succeed  in  sus- 
taining the  pupil's  interest,  (3)  The  lessons  should  be  as  con- 
crete as  possible  for  elementary  classes  ;  representation  (staif, 
notes,  etc.)  may  lead  in  higher  classes  ;  fine  technique  is  the 
final  concern  in  singing.  (4)  Among  the  best  systems  of  "  no- 
tation" are  those  employed  in  the  "  Normal  Music  Course," 
published  by  Silver,  Kogers  &  Co.,  50  Bromfield  Street,  Bos- 
ton. For  detailed  instruction  on  "  method"  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  "  Teachers'  Manual"  of  this  course,  or  to  the 
Mason  System,  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

III.  IMPOETANCE  OF  SINGING. 

Singing  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  valuable  educational 
means. 

The  Culture-Value  of  Singing.  A  course  in  singing 
tends  to  develop  the  whole  pupil.  (1)  "  It  brings  a  valuable 
contribution  to  physical  development  by  fortifying  the  lungs 
and  giving  suppleness  to  all  the  vocal  organs.  These  organs 
are  less  liable  to  the  many  grave  maladies  which  might  affect 
them,  especially  in  early  years,  if  they  have  been  subjected 
to  regular  exercise."  (2)  "  By  this  means  we  provide  for  the 
education  of  the  ear ;  we  cultivate  and  refine  a  sense  which 
along  with  vision  plays  a  preeminent  part  in  the  intellectual 
existence  of  the  child."  Singing  affords  fine  opportunities  for 
the  cultivation  of  memory,  imagination,  and  thought.  (3)  Its 
effects  on  the  sensibilities  are  very  remarkable.  This  is  due 
fundamentally  to  its  rhythm,  by  means  of  which  all  species 
of  emotion  can  be  combined  with  thoughts  and  transformed 


380         PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

into  volitions.  The  mind  tends  to  express  its  sweetest  senti- 
ments and  its  loftiest  aspirations  in  song.  Singing  touches  the 
heart  as  almost  nothing  else  can  do,  and  thus  becomes  the 
vehicle  of  social,  patriotic,  moral,  and  religious  influence. 
These  moral  possibilities  make  it  important  to  admit  within 
the  school  only  the  works  of  a  pure  and  exalted  sentiment, 
and,  as  much  as  possible,  the  productions  of  the  great  masters. 

The  Instruction- Value  of  Singing.  The  knowledge  of 
pitch,  time,  qualities  of  voice,  force,  rhythm,  melody,  and 
harmony  is  virtually  a  partial  conquest  of  such  branches  as 
reading,  poetry,  etc.  This  knowledge  is  also  to  be  desired  for 
its  own  sweet  sake  as  a  source  of  happiness.  It  may  thus 
become  for  young  people  the  most  powerful  preservative  against 
the  dangers  of  other  pleasures. 

The  Disciplinary  Value  of  Singing.  The  child  loves 
music.  Singing  is,  therefore,  "  one  of  the  surest  and  most  sal- 
utary means  of  discipline  which  can  be  employed."  A  song 
introduced  at  the  right  moment  into  a  sleepy,  languid  school, 
or  it  may  be  into  one  agitated  and  disturbed,  acts  like  elec- 
tricity. "  Music  has  the  gift  of  calming  children,  and  at  the 
same  time  of  urging  them  to  activity  by  an  agreeable  excita- 
tion." Rhythm  promotes  self-control  in  physical  movements, 
develops  unity  of  action  in  large  numbers,  and  stimulates  good 
mood.  It  is  an  excellent  recreation,  giving  repose  from  serious 
studies,  and  preparing  the  spirit  of  the  pupils  for  subsequent 
tasks. 


APPENDIX. 


381 


APPENDIX. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR   COLLATERAL 
READING. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 

1.  A  Primer  of  Psychology.     Titchener.     Macmillan. 

2.  The  New  Psychology.     Scripture.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons.      \ . 

3.  Thinking,  Feeling,  Doing.     Scripture.     Chautauqua  Press. 

4.  Mental  Faculty.     Warner.    University  Press. 

5.  The  Growth  of  the  Brain.     Donaldson.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

6.  Education  of  the  Central  Nervous  System.    Halleck.    Macmillan. 

7.  Principles  of  Psychology.     James.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

8.  Studies  of  Childhood.     Sully. 

9.  The  Study  of  the  Child.     Taylor.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

10.  The  Study  of  Children.     Warner.    Macmillan. 

11.  The  Development  of  the  Child.     Oppenheim.     Macmillan. 

12.  Three  Years  of  Childhood.     Perez.     G.  W.  Bardeen. 

13.  Psychology  in  Education.     Roark.    American  Book  Company. 

14.  Application  of  Psychology  to  Teaching.    Hailman.    Small. 

15.  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education.     Harris.    D.   Appleton 

&Co. 

16.  Apperception.     Lange.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACHING. 

1.  Leonard  and  Gertrude.     Pestalozzi.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

2.  Emile.     Rousseau.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

3.  Education  of  Man.     Froebel.    A.  Lovell  &  Co. 

4.  Lectures  to  Kindergartners.     Peabody.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

5.  Evolution  of  Dodd.     Smith.     Eand,  McNally  &  Co. 

6.  Education.     Spencer.     Educational  Publishing  Company. 

7.  Philosophy  of  Education.     Rosenkranz.     Appleton  &  Co. 

383 


384  APPENDIX 

8.  Philosophy  of  Education.     Tate.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

9.  Philosophy  of  Teaching.     Tompkins.     Ginn  &  Co. 

10.  Science  of  Education.     Herhart.     D.  0.  Heath  &  Co. 

11.  Outlines  of  Pedagogics.     Rein.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

12.  Studies  in  Pedagogy.     Morgan.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

13.  A  Manual  of  Pedagogics.     Putnam.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

14.  Essentials  of  Method.     De  Oarmo.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

15.  Lectures  on  Teaching.     Joseph  Payne.     E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

16.  True  Order  of  Studies.     Hill.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

17.  School  Economy.     Wickersliam.     J.  E.  Lippincott  Company. 

METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

Arithmetic. 

1.  Grube  Method  of  Arithmetic.     Seely.    E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

2.  Psychology  of  Number.     Dewey. 

3.  Philosophy  of  Arithmetic.     Brooks.     Normal  Publishing  Com- 

pany. 

4.  Elements  of  Pedagogy.     White.     Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 

5.  Normal  Methods  of  Teaching.     Brooks. 

Composition. 

1.  Language  Lessons.     Barnes.    American  Book  Company. 

2.  Elementary  Lessons  in  English,  Parts  I.  and  II.     Knox.     Ginn 

&Co. 

3.  Practical  Lessons  in  Language.     Conklin.    American  Book  Com- 

pany. 

4.  How  to  Write  English.     Beade.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

5.  Hand-Book  of  Punctuation.    Turner.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

6.  Every-Day  Errors  of  Speech.    Meredith.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 

pany. 

7.  How  to  "Write  Clearly.     Abbott.     Eoberts  Brothers. 

8.  Analysis  of  Letter  Writing.     Townsend.     American  Book  Com- 

pany. 

9.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition.     Hill.    Sheldon  &  Co. 

10.  Composition  and  Rhetoric.     Quackenbos.    American  Book  Com- 

pany. 

11.  Early  English  Pronunciation.     Ellis. 

12.  History  of  English  Sounds.    Sweet. 

13.  Primer  of  English  Verse.     Corson.     Ginn  &  Co. 

14.  Nature  of  Poetry.     Stedman.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

15.  Hand-Book  of  Poetics.     Gummere.    Ginn  &  Co. 


APPENDIX  385 

16.  English  Poets.     Ward. 

17.  English  Literature.     Tenbrinks. 

18.  Shorter  History  of  English  Literature.    Saintsbury. 

Drawing. 

1.  Elements  of  Drawing  Simplified.     Augsburg.    Educational  Pub- 

lishing Company. 

2.  System  of  Drawing.     White.    Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co. 

3.  System  of  Drawing.     Montgomery.     Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor 

&  Co. 

4.  Mechanical  Drawing.     Cross.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Geography. 

1.  The  Child  and  Nature.     Frye.     Ginn  &  Co. 

2.  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins.     Frye.     Ginn  &  Co. 

3.  Teachers'  Manual  of  Geography.     Frye.     Ginn  &  Co. 

4.  Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography.     Eedway.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

5.  Elements  of  Pedagogy.     White.     Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 

6.  Geographical  Studies.     Ritter.    Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 

7.  Comparative  Geography.     Ritter.    Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 

8.  Physiography.    Huxley. London,  1881. 

GrarriTnar. 

1.  Simple  Grammar  of  English.    Earle.    Putnams. 

2.  English  Grammar  and  Composition.     Reed  and  Kellogg.    Clark 

&  Maynard. 

3.  English  Grammar.  Lyte.    American  Book  Company. 

4.  English  Grammar.  Welsh.     American  Book  Company. 

5.  English  Grammar.  BaskervUl  and  Sewell.    American  Book  Com- 

pany. 

6.  English  Grammar.     West.    University  Press. 

7.  Principles  of  English  Grammar.     Carpenter.    Macmillan. 

8.  Essentials  of  English  Grammar.     Whitney.    Ginn  &  Co. 

9.  Grammar  Land.     Nesbitt.     Holt  &  Co. 

10.  The  English  Language.    Meiklejohn.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

11.  History  of  English.     Champney.    Macmillan. 

History. 

1.  Stories  of  Pennsylvania.     Walton  and  Brumbaugh.     American 

Book  Company. 

2.  American  Indians.    Starr.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

25 


386  APPENDIX 

3.  History  of  the  United  States.     Morris.     J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 

pany. 

4.  Historical  Tales.     Morris.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

5.  Advanced  History  of  the  United  States.    Morris.    J.  B.  Lippin- 

cott Company. 

6.  How  to  Kemember  History.     Shaffer.     J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

7.  Methods  of  Historical  Study.     Freeman.    London,  1886. 

8.  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History.    Hall.    D.  C.  Heath 

&Co. 

9.  Aids  to  Teaching  of  General  History.    Sheldon.    Heath  &  Co. 

10.  History  of  Civilization.     Guizot. 

11.  Philosophy  of  History. 

Manual  Training. 

1.  First  Lessons  in  Wood- Working.      Compton.     American  Book 

Company. 

2.  Knife  Work  in  the  School  Koom.     Kilhon.     M.  Bradley  Com- 

pany. 

3.  Elementary  Wood- Work.     Kilhon.    Lee  &  Shepard. 

4.  Wood- Work  in  the  Common  School.     Hinckley.     M.  Bradley 

Company. 

5.  The  Sloyd  System  of  Wood- Work.    Hoffman.    American  Book 

Company. 

6.  Wood- Work.     Barter.     Macmillan. 

7.  Exercises  in  Wood- Working.    Sickels.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

8.  Bench  Work  in  Wood.     Goss.     Giim  &  Co. 

9.  How  to  Use  Wood- Working  Tools.     Whitaker.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

10.  Industrial  Instruction.     Seidel.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

11.  Pennsylvania  Commission  of  Industrial  Education.     Edwin  K. 

Myers. 

12.  Commissioner  of  Labor.     {Eighth  Annual  Report.)    Government 

Printing  OflSce. 

13.  Manual  Training.     Ham.    Harper  &  Brothers. 

14.  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training.    Woodward.    D.  C.  Heath 

&Co. 

Mental  Culture. 

1.  Mental  Science  and  Culture.    Brooks.    Normal  Publishing  Com- 

pany, Lancaster,  Pennsylvania. 

2.  Self-Culture.    Blackie.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

3.  Habit  in  Education.    Radestock.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

4.  Memory.     Kay.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


APPENDIX  387 

Object  Lessons. 

1.  Primary  Object  Lessons.     Calkins.    American  Book  Company. 

2.  Common  Minerals  and  Rocks.     Crosby.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

3.  First  Book  of  Botany.     Youmans.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

4.  Natural  History  Object  Lessons.     Ricks.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

5.  Child's  Book  of  Nature.     Hooker.    American  Book  Company. 

6.  Color  in  the  School-Room.     Bradley.     Milton  Bradley  Company. 

7.  Longman's  Object  Lessons.    {Hints  and  Notes.)  Longmans,  Green 

&Co. 

8.  First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge.     Bert.     J.  B.  Lippincott 

Company. 

9.  Primer  of  Scientific  Knowledge.     Bert.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 

pany. 
10.  Studies  in  Nature  and  Language  Lessons.     Smith.    D.  C.  Heath 
&Co. 

Physiology. 

1.  Health  Lessons.     Walker.    American  Book  Company. 

2.  How  to  Get  Strong.     Blaikie. 

3.  How  to  Teach  Physiology.     Blaisdell.     Ginn  &  Co. 

4.  Hints  for  Teachers  of  Physiology.    Bowditch.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Physical  Culture. 

1.  Physical  Culture.     Preece.     C.  W.  Bardeen. 

2.  Progressive  Gymnastic  Day's  Orders.     Enehuske.     Silver,  Burdett 

&Co. 

3.  Manual  of  School  Gymnastics.     Smart.    American  Book  Com- 

pany. 

4.  Americanized  Delsarte  Culture.    Bishop.     Chautauqua-Century 

Press. 

Reading. 

1.  How  to  Teach  Reading.    HaM.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

2.  Rational  Method  in  Reading.     Ward.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

3.  Manual  of  Synthetic  Reading.     Pollard.    Western  Publishing 

House. 

4.  Reading  as  a  Fine  Art.    Legouve.    Boston,  1887. 

5.  Columbian  Selections.     Carrington.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

6.  Tales  from  Shakespeare.     J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


388  APPENDIX 

7.  Mastery  of  Books.     Koopman.    American  Book  Company. 

8.  School  Libraries.     Ginn  &  Co. 

9.  Worcester's  Comprehensive  Dictionary.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 

pany. 

10.  Standard  Dictionary.     Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company. 

11.  Century  Dictionary.    The  Century  Company. 

Singing. 

1.  Educational  Music  Course.    Mason.    Ginn  &  Co. 

2.  Normal  Course  of  Music  in  the  School  Room.    Lyman.    Silver, 

Burdett  &  Co. 

3.  Teacher's  Manual  of  Music.    Tufts  and  Holt.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

4.  Science  of  Esthetics.    Day.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Spelling. 

1.  Normal  Course  in  Spelling.    Dunton.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

2.  Advanced  Speller.     Pollard.     Western  Publishing  House. 

3.  Scientific  Alphabet.    Van  De  Venter.    Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company. 

4.  The  Orthoepist.    Alfred  Ayres.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


Writing. 

1.  Theory  of  Penmanship.   Spencer.   Ivison,Blakeman,  Taylor  &  Co. 

2.  Vertical  Edition  of  Spencerian  Penmanship.    American  Book 

Company. 

3.  Vertical  Penmanship.    Merrill.    Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co. 

4.  How  to  Teach  Writing.    Appleton.    American  Book  Company. 


INDEX. 


Psychologry : 

Abstraction,  15,  27  ;  aflfections,  20  ;  analysis,  18  ;  apperception,  16, 
50 ;  association  tracks,  13  ;  attention,  23  ;  choice,  22  ;  classification, 
17 ;  conception,  16 ;  conscience,  15  ;  consciousness,  16,  26  ;  curi- 
osity, 21 ;  decision,  22  ;  deduction,  18  ;  definition,  24  ;  desires,  20 
direct  comparison,  17  ;  emotions,  19  ;  expectations,  21 ;   fear,  21 
generalization,  15  ;  habit,  13,  33 ;  hate,  18 ;  hope,  21 ;  ideas,  12 
ideation,  12,  49  ;  idea  of  identity  in  thought,  28  ;  imagination,  14, 
27,  42 ;  indirect  comparison,  18 ;   induction,  18  ;   interaction  of 
mental  activities,  25 ;  intellect,  12 ;   intention,  23 ;  interest,  21 ; 
judgment,  17  ;  knowing,  19 ;  knowledge,  19  ;  laws  of  mental  ac- 
tivity, 25  ;  limits  of  imagination,  28  ;  limits  of  mental  development, 
30 ;  love,  18 ;  memory,  13,  27,  42 ;  middle  term,  18  ;  mind,  24 ; 
motives,  22 ;  neurosis,  26 ;  passion,  20 ;  perception,  13,  41 ;  prem- 
ises, 18  ;  psychology,  11 ;  psychosis,  26 ;  purpose,  23  ;  reasoning, 

18  ;  resolution,  23  ;  sensation,  12,  26  ;  sensibility,  19,  43  ;  simple 
emotions,  19  ;  synthesis,  17 ;  stages  of  mental  development,  29 ; 
summation  of  stimuli,  25  ;  syllogism,  19,  50 ;  taste,  15 ;  thinking, 

19  ;  thought,  17,  42 ;  thoughts,  18  ;  total  interaction  of  mental  ac- 
tivities, 28  ;  trend  of  imagination,  27  ;  understanding,  19  ;  vohtion, 
22 ;  wiU,  22,  43. 

Principles  of  Teaching : 

Adaptation  of  tasks,  36  ;  arts,  49  ;  adaptation  of  lessons,  67  ;  bio- 
logical sciences,  46 ;  catalogue  of  correlated  studies,  53,  55  ;  causes 
before  laws,  etc.,  62  ;  "  Committee  of  Fifteen,"  53,  56,  57  ;  "Com- 
mittee on  Secondary  Education  in  Pennsylvania,"  53,  58  ;  concen- 
tration in  exercises,  44 ;  concentration  in  programs,  52 ;  concrete 
before  abstract  ideas,  60  ;  correlation  of  exercises,  41 ;  correlation 
of  sciences,  65  ;  correlation  of  studies,  52  ;  courses  of  studies,  52  ; 
culture  of  instruction,  72,  73  ;  definition  of  education,  39  ;  direct 
relation  of  ideas,  50 ;  directing  the  pupil,  36 ;  emancipating  the 
pupil  in  instruction,  37,  74  ;  exercise  the  law  of  development,  41 ; 
facts  defined,  45 ;  geography  classified,  47  ;  habits  in  education,  33; 

389 


390  INDEX 

ideas  before  names  and  signs,  59  ;  ideas  before  truths,  59  ;  ideal  of 
education,  38  ;  ideal  instruction,  75  ;  interesting  instruction,  69  ; 
limitations  of  mental  capacity, '38  ;  limitations  of  development,  44  ; 
man's  capacity,  33  ;  mathematics,  46 ;  mental  capacity,  34  ;  mental 
sciences,  47 ;  nature  of  education,  33,  34 ;  nature  of  knowledge, 
45  ;  nature  of  man,  33  ;  natural  sciences,  46  ;  needs  of  the  whole 
pupil  in  instruction,  70 ;  order  of  facts  of  sciences,  63 ;  order  of 
principles  of  sciences,  64  ;  particular  before  general  ideas,  61 ;  par- 
ticular before  general  truths,  61 ;  philosophy,  65  ;  physical  ca- 
pacity of  man,  34  ;  physical  sciences,  46  ;  play,  35  ;  principles,  41, 
59,  67 ;  principles  of  culture,  41 ;  principles  of  instruction,  67  ; 
principles  of  knowledge,  59 ;  programmes,  54,  58  ;  psychology  of 
science,  49  ;  pupil's  emancipation,  37  ;  right  method  of  instruction, 
71 ;  self-activity  in  education,  35 ;  self-supervision,  37 ;  science, 
45  ;  species  of  man's  capacity,  34  ;  species  of  education,  40  ;  species 
of  knowledge,  45  ;  specific  methods  of  instruction,  74 ;  specific 
syllogistic  features  of  the  sciences,  51 ;  stimulating  the  pupil,  36  ; 
succession  of  lessons,  68  ;  supervising  the  pupil,  35  ;  syllogism,  50 ; 
system  in  self-activity,  35,  36  ;  theology,  49  ;  work,  35. 

Methods  of  Teaching : 

Arithmetic,  240  ;  composition,  169  ;  drawing,  328  ;  geography,  282  ; 
grammar,  204  ;  history,  310  ;  manual  training,  347  ;  mental  culture, 
79 ;  object  lessons,  89 ;  physiology,  359  ;  physical  culture,  363 ; 
reading,  106 ;  singing,  371 ;  spelling,  145 ;  writing,  131. 

Arithmetic : 

Analysis  of  numbers,  242 ;  comparison  of  numbers,  242  ;  courses 
of  arithmetic,  247  ;  culture  value  of  arithmetic,  280  ;  deduction  in 
arithmetic,  245  ;  definition  of  arithmetic,  246  ;  history  of  arith- 
metic, 246 ;  importance  of  arithmetic,  280 ;  induction  in  arith- 
metic, 244 ;  instruction-value  of  arithmetic,  247 ;  language  of 
number-operations,  242  ;  nature  of  arithmetic,  240  ;  nature  of  mxm 
bers,  240  ;  number-operations,  241 ;  observation  in  arithmetic,  244 
practical  value  of  arithmetic,  281 ;  psychology  of  arithmetic,  244 
subject  of  arithmetic,  240,  243  ;  synthesis  of  numbers,  241 ;  train- 
ing of  teachers  of  arithmetic,  281. 

Elementary  Arithmetic : 

Borrowing,  258  ;  carrying,  257 ;  concepts  of  operation,  250 ;  deci- 
mal fractions,  264  ;  denominate  numbers,  265 ;  dividing,  260 ;  di- 


INDEX  391 

vision  by  fractions,  263 ;  ends  in  view  in  elementary  arithmetic, 
249  ;  exercises,  253  ;  fraction-concepts,  261 ;  Grube  treatment  of 
"  four,"  255  ;  illustrative  lessons,  255  ;  means,  254  ;  method  of  in- 
struction, 249  ;  multiplying,  260  ;  names  of  numbers,  256  ;  number- 
concepts,  249  ;  number-language,  251 ;  number-operations,  252  ; 
order  of  subjects,  254  ;  problems,  253  ;  speed-drills  in  "four,"  op- 
erations, 260  ;  tables,  259  ;  "terms"  of  a  fraction,  262  ;  two-thirds 
and  four-sixths,  262  ;  two-thirds  of  three-fourths,  263. 

Intermediate  Arithmetic : 

Axioms,  266  ;  concepts,  266 ;  ends  in  view,  266 ;  method  of  inter- 
mediate arithmetic,  266  ;  order  of  subjects,  269  ;  principles,  267  ; 
problems,  269  ;  rules,  266,  268. 

Written  Arithmetic : 

Answers,  270  ;  assignment  of  lessons,  271 ;  assignment  of  problems, 
272 ;  criticisms,  273  ;  attention  to  general  truths,  274  ;  importance 
of  reviews,  274 ;  objects  of  recitation,  272 ;  preparing  the  board, 
272  ;  preparing  lessons,  271 ;  problems,  269 ;  pupil's  explanation 
of  problems,  273  ;  plan  of  recitation,  272  ;  teacher's  part  in  prob- 
lems, 274  ;  working  of  problems,  273. 

Mental  Arithmetic  : 

Board-work,  277  ;  chance  assignment  of  problems,  276  ;  common 
method  of  recitation,  276 ;  discipline  of  mental  arithmetic,  277  ; 
importance  of  mental  arithmetic,  277  ;  nature  of  mental  arithmetic, 
275  ;  "  parts"  method  of  assigning  problems,  276  ;  plea  for  mental 
arithmetic,  278  ;  practical  value  of  mental  arithmetic,  278  ;  prepa- 
ration of  lessons,  276 ;  recitation,  276  ;  silent  method  of  solving 
problems,  277  ;  solution  of  problems,  275. 

Higher  Arithmetic  : 

Ends  in  view,  278 ;  high-school  arithmetic,  279 ;  method  of  in- 
struction, 279  ;  normal-school  arithmetic,  279 ;  subjects  of  higher 
arithmetic,  279. 

Composition : 

Capitals,  182 ;  constructing  a  composition,  177,  180 ;  correcting  a 
composition,  179,  201 ;  criticising  a  composition,  178  ;  cumulating 


392  INDEX 

materials,  169,  179,  196 ;  diction,  180 ;  figures  of  speech,  181 ;  fin- 
ishing touches,  178,  182  ;  importance  of  composition,  202  ;  instruc- 
tion in  composition,  179 ;  mechanical  execution,  177 ;  nature  of 
composition,  169 ;  outUnes,  171  to  176  ;  plan  of  construction,  170, 
180,  200  ;  principles  of  instruction,  182  ;  punctuation,  182  ;  selec- 
tion of  subjects,  169,  179,  195  ;  species  of  composition,  170 ;  struc- 
ture of  sentences,  181 ;  taste  in  composition,  182. 

Elementary  Composition  : 

Anecdotes,  191 ;  committing,  188 ;  describing  objects,  190 ;  de- 
scribing actions,  190 ;  describing  pictures,  191 ;  elhpses,  186  ;  imi- 
tation, 187  ;  names  of  objects,  185  ;  names  of  actions,  186  ;  narra- 
tives, 191 ;  original  sentences,  186,  189 ;  poems,  188  ;  simple  sen- 
tences, 186  ;  simple  letters,  189  ;  stories,  191. 

Intermediate  Composition  : 

Acquisition  of  style,  199  ;  acquisition  of  vocabulary,  197  ;  correct- 
ing a  composition,  201 ;  cumulating  materials,  196  ;  diction,  194  ; 
figures  of  rhetoric,  194  ;  letters,  193  ;  original  exercises,  195  ;  plan 
of  construction,  200  ;  poetry  and  prose,  194  ;  selection  of  subjects, 
195 ;  sentence-qualities,  194 ;  substance  of  reading  lessons,  192 ; 
style,  199  ;  synopsis  of  lessons,  193  ;  vocabulary,  197  ;  written  reci- 
tations in  various  studies,  192 ;  writing  a  composition,  200. 

Higher  Composition  : 

Aims,  202  ;  requisites,  202. 

Drawing : 

Courses  of  drawing,  333  ;  culture  value  of  drawing,  344 ;  deduction 
in  drawing,  331 ;  definition  of  drawing,  332  ;  form-facts  of  objects, 
330  ;  form-laws  of  objects,  330  ;  history  of  drawing,  333  ;  induction 
in  drawing,  330  ;  importance  of  drawing,  344  ;  instruction  in  draw- 
ing, 333  ;  instruction-value  of  drawing,  345  ;  laws  of  form-repre- 
sentation, 331 ;  length  of  lines,  328  ;  linear  representation  of  forms, 
328 ;  linear  representation  of  objects,  332 ;  marks  of  expression, 
329 ;  method  of  study,  330 ;  nature  of  drawing,  328  ;  observation 
in  drawing,  330  ;  possibilities  of  the  pupil,  334 ;  practical  value  of 
drawing,  345  ;  psychology  of  drawing,  330  ;  representation-facts  of 
form,  330  ;  training  of  drawing-teachers,  346  ;  type-form  analysis 
of  objects,  331. 


INDEX  393 

Elementary  Drawing : 

Cylinder,  340 ;  dictation  by  line,  341 ;  illustrative  lessons,  336- 
341 ;  method  of  instruction,  336 ;  preparation  of  lessons,  336 ; 
recitation,  336-338  ;  subjects  of  elementary  drawing,  335 ;  sphere, 
339 ;  cube-faces,  340. 

Intermediate  Drawing : 

Method  of  instruction,  342;  subjects  of  intermediate  drawing, 
342. 

Higher  Drawing : 

Method  of  instruction,  344 ;  subjecis  of  higher  drawing,  343. 

Geography : 

Culture-value  of  geography,  309 ;  explanation,  283 ;  history  of 
geography,  285  ;  importance  of  geography,  309 ;  instruction  in 
geography,  286  ;  instruction- value  of  geography,  309 ;  nature  of 
geography,  282 ;  necessary  courses,  287,  288,  289 ;  observation  in 
geography,  283  ;  practical  value  of  geography,  309  ;  psychology  of 
geography,  282  ;  relations  of  geography,  284  ;  subject  of  geogra- 
phy, 282  ;  species  of  geography,  283  ;  teachers  of  geography,  309. 

Elementary  Geography : 

Climate,  294 ;  continents,  296  ;  countries,  298  ;  deductions,  290 ; 
development  of  concepts,  289 ;  direction,  292-297  ;  discovery  of 
facts,  289  ;  distance,  293  ;  distribution  of  land  and  water,  296  ;  ends 
in  view,  289  ;  form  of  the  earth,  295,  301 ;  inductions,  289  ;  illustra- 
tive lessons,  297  ;  lesson-method,  290  ;  motions  of  the  earth,  296  ; 
people,  295  ;  plants,  301 ;  position,  292,  297  ;  productions,  294  ;  rep- 
resentation, 291,  293  ;  seasons,  301 ;  soil,  294,  300  ;  subjects  of  ele- 
mentary geography,  292  ;  surfaces,  293  ;  water,  293. 

Intermediate  Geography  : 

Deductions  of  intermediate  geography,  304 ;  ends  in  view,  303  ; 
enlargement  of  concepts,  303  ;  inductions  of  intermediate  geog- 
raphy, 304  ;  lesson-method,  304  ;  map-drawing,  305  ;  multiplica- 
tion of  facts,  303  ;  preparation  of  lessons,  306 ;  recitation,  306 ; 
subjects  of  intermediate  geography,  306. 


394  INDEX 

Higher  Geography  : 

College  geography,  308  ;  high-school  geography,  308 ;  methods 
of  higher  geography,  308  ;  normal-school  geography,  308  ;  tasks  of 
higher  geography,  307  ;  university  geography,  308. 

Grammar : 

Analysis,  207  ;  construction  of  sentences,  207  ;  courses  of  gram- 
mar, 210  ;  culture- value  of  grammar,  237  ;  deduction  in  grammar, 
206  ;  history  of  grammar,  208 ;  importance  of  grammar,  237  ;  in- 
duction in  grammar,  206 ;  instruction  in  grammar,  210 ;  instruc- 
tion-value of  grammar,  238  ;  method  of  study,  205 ;  nature  of 
grammar,  204  ;  observation  in  grammar,  205  ;  parsing,  207  ;  prac- 
tical value  of  grammar,  239 ;  psychology  of  grammar,  205  ;  sub- 
ject of  grammar,  204  ;  teachers  of  grammar,  239. 

Elementary  Grammar: 

Adjectives,  215  ;  adverbs,  216  ;  cases,  219  ;  comparison,  220  ;  con- 
junctions, 218  ;  deductions  of  elementary  grammar,  212  ;  elements 
of  a  sentence,  221 ;  illustrative  lessons,  214 ;  inductions  of  ele- 
mentary grammar,  211  ;  irregular  verbs,  221 ;  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, 214  ;  modifiers,  217  ;  nouns,  215  ;  objects  of  elementary  gram- 
mar, 211  ;  observation  in  elementary  grammar,  214  ;  predicate  of 
a  sentence,  217  ;  prepositions,  218  ;  pronouns,  218  ;  regular  verbs, 
221  ;  rules  of  grammar,  222  ;  subjects  of  elementary  grammar,  212  ; 
subject  of  a  sentence,  216 ;  tense,  220  ;  verbs,  215. 

Intermediate  Grammar  : 

Abbreviations  in  parsing,  226 ;  analysis,  228 ;  abbreviations  in 
analysis,  230 ;  diagrams  in  grammar,  231 ;  deductions,  223  ;  defi- 
nitions, 224  ;  eclectic  analysis,  230 ;  eclectic  parsing,  227 ;  en- 
thymeme  statements  in  analysis,  229  ;  enthymeme  statements  in 
parsing,  225;  errors  in  analysis,  232;  errors  in  parsing,  228; 
exercises  in  syntax,  233  ;  false  syntax,  233  ;  forms  of  analysis, 
228  ;  forms  of  parsing,  225  ;  grammatical  description,  230  ;  import- 
ance of  exercises  in  syntax,  234  ;  inductions  in  intermediate  gram- 
mar, 223  ;  inflections,  224  ;  method  of  instruction,  234  ;  objects  of 
analysis,  233 ;  objects  of  parsing,  228  ;  objects  of  intermediate 
grammar,  223  ;  original  sentences,  234  ;  parsing,  225  ;  preparation 
of  lessons,  235  ;  proportion  of  oral  and  written  analysis,  232  ;  pro- 
portion of  oral  and  written  parsing,  227  ;  recitation,  235  ;  relation 
of  analysis  and  synthesis,  232 ;  rules,  224 ;  simple  statements  in 


INDEX  395 

analysis,  229  ;  simple  statements  in  parsing,  226  ;  subjects  of  inter- 
mediate grammar,  223  ;  text-books  of  intermediate  grammar,  234. 

Higher  Grammar: 

High-school  grammar,  236  ;  methods  of  instruction,  237  ;  normal- 
school  grammar,  236 ;  objects  of  higher  grammar,  236 ;  prepara- 
tory school  grammar,  237  ;  subjects  of  higher  grammar,  236. 

History : 

Courses  of  history,  315  ;  culture-value  of  history,  327  ;  deduction  in 
history,  313  ;  definition  of  history,  313  ;  history  of  history,  314  ; 
importance  of  history,  326 ;  induction  in  history,  311,  312 ;  in- 
struction in  history,  315  ;  instruction- value  of  history,  327  ;  nature 
of  history,  310  ;  observation  in  history,  311  ;  psychology  of  history, 
310  ;  species  of  history,  313  ;  subject  of  history,  310  ;  teachers  of 
history,  327  ;  theories  of  history,  312. 

Elementary  History : 

Construction  of  events,  315  ;  inquiry  into  the  relation  of  events, 
316  ;  means  in  elementary  history,  317 ;  method  of  instruction, 
316  ;  recitation,  317  ;  subjects  of  elementary  history,  319  ;  tasks  of 
elementary  history,  315. 

Intermediate  History : 

Assignment  of  lessons,  324  ;  imagination  of  complex  lessons,  320  ; 
inquiry  into  remote  relations  of  events,  321 ;  means  of  instruction, 
321 ;  method  of  instruction,  321 ;  oral  recitations,  323  ;  prepara- 
tion of  lessons,  322  ;  recitation,  322 ;  reviews,  324  ;  tasks  of  inter- 
mediate history,  320 ;  written  recitations,  323. 

Higher  History  : 

College  history,  326  ;  high-school  history,  326  ;  normal-school  his- 
tory, 326  ;  tasks  of  higher  history,  325  ;  university  history,  326. 

Manual  Training : 

Courses  of  instruction,  352 ;  culture-value,  357 ;  exercises,  348, 
352  ;  history  of  manual  training,  348  ;  importance,  357  ;  instruction, 
351 ;  instruction-value,  357  ;  manual  training-room,  355  ;  material 
equipments,  355 ;  manual  training  in  the  United  States,  348 ; 
methods  of  instruction,  354  ;  practical  value,  358  ;  preparation  of 
lessons,  355  ;  prospects  of  manual  training,  349  ;  pupil's  prepara- 


396  INDEX 

tion  of  lessons,  356  ;  recitation,  356  ;  studies,  347  ;  tasks  of  manual 
training,  347  ;  teachers  of  manual  training,  358  ;  teacher's  prepa- 
ration of  lessons,  355 ;  tools,  355  ;  working  materials,  355. 

Elementary  Manual  Training : 

Ends  in  view,  353  ;  exercises,  353  ;  recitation,  356 ;  studies,  353. 

Intermediate  Manual  Training : 

Ends  in  view,  353  ;  exercises,  353  ;  studies,  353. 

Higher  Manual  Training : 

Ends  in  view,  354  ;  exercises,  354  ;  studies,  354. 

Mental  Culture : 

Imagination,  83  ;  memory,  80  ;  perception,  79 ;  sensibility,  85 ; 
thought,  84  ;  will,  86  to  88. 

Object  Lessons : 

Color,  93 ;  course  of  object  lessons,  91 ;  ends  in  view,  89  ;  form, 
91 ;  history  of  object  lessons,  90 ;  importance  of  object  lessons, 
104  ;  instruction  in  object  lessons,  91 ;  method  of  instruction,  104  ; 
method  of  study,  90  ;  nature  oi  object  lessons,  89  ;  nature  studies, 
102  ;  parts,  99  ;  qualities,  101 ;  subjects  of  study  in  object  lessons, 
89. 

Color : 

Analysis  of  compounds,  95  ;  broken  colors,  96  ;  complements,  9.^  ; 
course  of  lessons,  96  ;  harmonies,  96  ;  importance  of  color-lessons, 
98 ;  instruction  in  colors,  96 ;  methods  of  instruction,  97 ;  prepa- 
ration of  lessons,  97  ;  recitation,  97  ;  scales  of  color,  94  ;  solar  spec- 
trum, 94  ;  standard  colors,  94  ;  synthesis  of  colors,  95. 

Form  : 

Elementary  forms,  92  ;  embodiment  of  forms,  91 ;  importance  of 
teaching  forms,  93  ;  method  of  teaching  forms,  92. 

Nature  Studies  : 

Botany,  102  ;  courses  of  lessons,  102  ;  culture-value,  103 ;  import- 
ance of  nature  studies,  103  ;  instruction-value  of  nature  studies, 
104 ;  method  of  instruction,  103 ;  practical  value  of  nature  studies, 
104 ;  zoology,  102. 


INDEX  397 

Parts : 

Course  of  lessons,  99 ;  importance  of  lessons  on  parts,  100 ;  method 
of  instruction,  100. 

Qualities : 

Course  of  lessons,  101 ;  importance  of  lessons  on  qualities,  102 ; 
method  of  instruction,  101. 

Physiology : 

Common-school  physiology,  360 ;  course  of  physiology,  360 ;  cul- 
ture-value, 362  ;  functions  of  body,  359  ;  health  of  body,  359  ; 
higher  physiology,  361 ;  history  of  physiology,  360  ;  importance, 
361 ;  instruction  in  physiology,  360  ;  instruction-value  of  physi- 
ology, 362 ;  life-value  of  physiology,  362 ;  nature  of  physiology, 
359 ;  psychology  of  physiology,  360 ;  subjects  of  physiology,  359. 

Physical  Culture : 

Adoption  of  a  system,  369 ;  classification  of  physical  exercises, 
365;  course  of  exercises,  362;  history  of  physical  culture,  364 ; 
importance  of  physical  culture,  370  ;  instruction  in  physical  cul- 
tvire,  365 ;  lower-limb  movements,  365  ;  method  of  instruction  in 
physical  culture,  368 ;  nature  of  physical  culture,  363 ;  necessity 
of  physical  culture,  363  ;  preparation  of  lessons,  368  ;  principles 
of  physical  culture,  366 ;  recitation,  369 ;  relation  of  body  and 
mind,  364 ;  trunk  movements,  365  ;  upper-limb  movements,  365. 

Reading : 

Culture-value  of  reading,  130 ;  elocution,  109  ;  history  of  reading, 
111 ;  ideal  vocabulary,  113  ;  importance  of  reading,  130  ;  laws  of  ac- 
centuation, 109  ;  laws  of  articulation,  108  ;  laws  of  enunciation,  107 ; 
laws  of  pronunciation,  107 ;  laws  of  syllabication,  108 ;  methods 
of  instruction,  112  ;  nature  of  reading,  106  ;  practical  value  of  read- 
ing, 130 ;  progress  in  vocabulary,  114 ;  pronunciation,  106  ;  psy- 
chology of  reading.  111 ;  teacher's  tasks,  112 ;  teacher's  training, 
130. 

Elementary  Reading : 

Alphabetic  method,  121 ;  alphabetic  names,  120  ;  analysis  of  anal- 
ogous words,  117  ;  analysis  of  representative  words,  116 ;  capital 
letters,  120  ;  diacritical  marks,  119  ;  discovery  of  rules,  118  ;  pho- 


398  INDEX 

netic  method,  122  ;  Pollard  method,  122 ;  script  letters,  119  ;  sen- 
tence building,  118  ;  teacher's  preparation  of  lessons,  118  ;  teach- 
ing ability,  117  ;  transition  to  visible  words,  116  ;  vocabulary,  115  ; 
"word"  method,  121. 

Intermediate  Reading : 

Analysis,  124 ;  development  of  literary  taste,  129 ;  elocutionary 
exercises,  127  ;  enunciation  drills,  127 ;  fluency,  109 ;  inductive 
discoveries,  118  ;  language  lessons,  118  ;  lisping,  128  ;  mental  phase 
of  reading,  128  ;  stammering,  128  ;  supplementary  reading,  129 ; 
synthesis,  117. 

Singing- : 

Courses  in  singing,  376 ;  culture-value,  379  ;  disciplinary  value, 
380  ;  force  of  tones,  372  ;  harmony  of  tones,  372  ;  history  of  sing- 
ing, 374  ;  importance  of  singing,  379  ;  instruction  in  singing,  376  ; 
instruction- value  of  singing,  380  ;  melody,  372  ;  method  of  instruc- 
tion, 378  ;  nature  of  singing,  371  ;  pitch  of  tones,  371 ;  preparation 
of  lessons,  378  ;  production  of  tones,  371  ;  public-school  singing, 
377  ;  pupil's  preparation  of  lessons,  378  ;  recitation,  378  ;  recita- 
tion tasks,  378  ;  reading  of  notes,  374 ;  representation  of  tones, 
373  ;  rhythm  of  tones,  372  ;  singing  of  the  "masses,"  376  ;  singing 
of  teachers,  377  ;  specialists  in  singing,  377 ;  teacher's  preparation 
of  lessons,  378 ;  time  of  tones,  372. 

Spelling : 

Course  of  lessons,  167  ;  discipline  of  spelling,  168  ;  history  of  Eng- 
lish orthography,  145  ;  importance  of  spelling,  167 ;  instruction 
in  spelling,  149  ;  nature  of  spelling,  145  ;  observation  in  spelling, 
150 ;  origin  of  alphabet,  145  ;  physical  structure  of  words,  148  ; 
practical  value  of  spelling,  168  ;  preparation  of  lessons,  150  ;  prin- 
ciples of  instruction,  165  ;  psychology  of  spelling,  149  ;  recitation, 
152  ;  recreations,  160  ;  relative  merits  of  oral  and  written  spelling, 
162  ;  rules  of  spelling,  151 ;  species  of  spelling,  152,  155  ;  spelling 
books,  167  ;  spelling  matches,  160 ;  spelling  reforms,  147  ;  supple- 
mentary devices,  169  ;  trapping,  159 ;  vocabulary  lessons,  167. 

Oral  Spelling : 

Advantages,  164  ;  assigning  words,  155 ;  meaning  of  words,  157 ; 
preliminaries,  155  ;  spelling  the  words,  156. 


INDEX  399 

Written  Spelling  : 

Advantages,  162 ;  assigning  lessons,  154  ;  assigning  words,  152 ; 
corrections,  154  ;  preliminaries,  152  ;  spelling  the  words,  153. 

Writing : 

Artistic  penmanship,  143 ;  capital  letters,  142 ;  combined  move- 
ments, 140 ;  courses  in  writing,  136  ;  desirable  qualities  of  pen- 
manship, 133  ;  disciplinary  value,  143 ;  elementary  course,  137  ; 
figures,  142  ;  finger  movements,  139  ;  fore-arm  movements,  140 ; 
form  elements,  132  ;  form  lessons,  141 ;  higher  course,  142 ;  history 
of  writing,  134  ;  holding  the  pen,  139  ;  importance  of  penmanship, 
143  ;  instruction  in  writing,  136  ;  intermediate  course,  138  ;  merits 
of  slanting  writing,  135  ;  merits  of  vertical  writing,  135  ;  methods 
of  instruction,  137,  138 ;  nature  of  writing,  131 ;  physical  act  of 
writing,  131  ;  position  at  desk,  139 ;  psychology  of  writing,  131 ; 
shading,  142  ;  small  letters,  141 ;  spacing,  142  ;  structure  of  script, 
132  ;  tasks  of  writing  courses,  137,  138 ;  teachers  of  penmanship, 
143 ;  whole-arm  movements,  140. 


